The Writing Process: Paragraph Development Lecture # 4, 5 and 6 Notes For Student Objectives Exams

The Writing Process
Paragraph Development
Lecture # 4 , 5 and 6
Notes for student
Objectives
Exams
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Slide

The Writing Process
PREWRITING
• Thinking about possible subjects
• Freely jotting ideas
• Narrowing the subject and writing your
main idea in one sentence
• Deciding which ideas to include
• Arranging ideas in a plan or outline

The Writing Process (cont’d)
WRITING
• Writing the first draft
REVISING
• Rethinking, rearranging, revising
• Writing one or more new drafts
• Proofreading

Subject, Audience, Purpose
Read these sentences from real job-application

letters and resumes. Specifically, how does each
writer undercut his or her purpose—to get
that job?
1. I have lurnt Word and computer spreadsheet programs.

2. Please don’t misconstrue my 14 jobs as “job-hopping.” I
have never quit a job.
3. I procrastinate, especially when the task is unpleasant.

Subject, Audience, Purpose (cont’d)
4. Let’s meet, so you can “ooh” and “aah” over my

experience.
5. It is best for employers that I not work with people.
6. Reason for leaving my last job: maturity leave.
7. As indicted, I have over five years of analyzing
investments.
8. References: none. I have left a path of destruction
behind me.

Five Prewriting Techniques
1. Freewriting
2. Brainstorming
3. Clustering
4. Asking Questions
5. Keeping a journal

The Reporter’s Six Questions
• Who?
• What?
• Where?
• When?
• Why?
• How?

Ask Your Own Questions
As a class, discuss what you’d like to know

about one of these topics:
• student stress
• binge drinking
• the death penalty
List questions about the topic that will lead
to the information you want.

The Paragraph: Topic
Sentence and Body
The topic sentence states the main idea. The

body develops and supports this main idea.
Topic Sentence
Body:
a. Supporting Point 1
b. Supporting Point 2
c. Supporting Point 3
Conclusion

A paragraph is:
A distinct division of written material that

begins on a new, usually indented line,
consists of one or more sentences, and
typically deals with a single thought or topic.
Three Qualities of the Academic Paragraph
1.Unity: focuses on one main idea

2. Coherence: parts are clearly related
3. Development: main idea is supported with
specifics
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Slide 1

Topic Sentence and Body
Find the topic sentence. Does the body fully support it?
I allow the spiders the run of the house. I figure that any predator that
hopes to make a living on whatever smaller creatures might blunder
into a four-inch-square bit of space in the corner of the bathroom
where the rub meets the floor needs every bit of my support. They
catch flies and even field crickets in those webs. Large spiders in
barns have been known to trap, wrap, and suck hummingbirds, but
there’s no danger of that here. I tolerate the webs, only occasionally
sweeping away the very dirtiest of them after the spider itself has
scrambled to safety. I’m always leaving a bath towel draped over the
tub so that the big, haired spiders, who are constantly getting trapped
by the tub’s smooth sides, can use its rough surface as an exit ramp.
Inside the house the spiders have only given me one mild surprise. I
washed some dishes and set them to dry over a plastic drainer. Then
I wanted a cup of coffee, so I picked from the drainer my mug, which
was still warm from the hot rinse water, and across the rim of the mug,
strand after strand, was a spider web. --Annie Dillard

Finding and Underlining Topic
Sentences and Main Ideas
Identify the topic sentence.
The summer picnic gave ladies a chance to show off their

baking hands. On the barbecue pit, chickens and spareribs
sputtered in their own fat and in a sauce whose recipe was
guarded in the family like a scandalous affair. However, every
true baking artist could reveal her prize to the delight and
criticism of the town. Orange sponge cakes and dark brown
mounds dripping Hershey’s chocolate stood layer to layer with
ice-white coconuts and light brown caramels. Pound cakes
sagged with their buttery weight and small children could no
more resist licking the icings than their mothers could avoid
slapping the sticky fingers.
--Maya Angelou, I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings

Use topic sentences to
rhetorical effect.
• Topic Sentence at the Beginning: Readers will
see your point immediately; subsequent
sentences will build on your topic sentence,
which serves as an introduction
• Topic Sentence at the End: Specific details lead
up to the general statement of the topic
sentence. Creates suspense and a sense of
cause and effect.
• Topic Sentence at the Beginning and End—
State your topic sentence at the beginning and
then refer to it in a slightly different form at the
end. The echo adds emphasis.
• Topic Sentence Implied—Use if the
topic+comment is so obvious, your readers can
infer it from the content of the paragraph.
Finding and Underlining Topic
Sentences and Main Ideas
Identify the topic sentence.
These people often stay late at the office even if they are not
paid extra to do so. On weekends, they think about their jobs
—trying to solve a problem, worrying about a client, or
planning for Monday. If you ask them to explain, they will
probably tell you that they love working, that many aspects of
their job are fun. It doesn’t matter whether they are the
heads of companies or clerks at a local flower shop. What
matters is the match between their passion, interests,
personalities, and the work they do. A few lucky people have
found for themselves what many seek—the perfect job.
--Jared Barnes, Job Watch

Steps for Writing
an Effective Paragraph
1. Narrow the topic.

2. Write the topic sentence.
3. Brainstorm ideas for the body.
4. Select and drop ideas.
5. Group related ideas.
6. Write your first draft.
7. Reread and revise.
8. Neatly rewrite the final draft.
9. Proofread.

Help! Topic Sentence Repair Needed
Evaluate and revise these topic sentences:

1. This paragraph will cover procrastination.
2. Exercise is an important topic.
3. Ways to lose weight.

Revision Checklist
• Check your topic sentence. Revise if it’s

incomplete or unclear.
• Check for adequate support. Add facts and
details where needed.
• Check for unity. Drop words and
sentences that don’t support the main idea.

Topic Sentence Review
 The most important sentence in the paragraph.

 It states the topic and the controlling idea of the paragraph.
 Three important points to be remember about a topic
sentence:
1. A topic sentence is a complete sentence
2. It controls or guides the whole paragraph. When you read the
topic sentence, you know what to expect in a paragraph.
3. Topic sentence contains topic and controlling idea.
4. The most general statement in the paragraph because it gives
only the main idea.
5. A good topic sentence is not too general nor too specific.

Paragraph Development
• Use examples and

illustrations
• Cite data (facts,
statistics, evidence,
details) http://www.greenville.k12.sc.us/taylorse
• Examine testimony
• Use an anecdote
(what other people
or story
say such as quotes
and paraphrases) • Define terms in the
paragraph

Revising for Support
Check this paragraph for adequate support. Then
rewrite it, dropping repetitious words or sentences and
inventing facts and details if necessary.
(1) Lending money to a friend can have negative

consequences. (2) For example, Ashley, a student at
Tornado Community College, agreed to lend $200 to
her best friend, Jan. (3) This was a bad decision even
though Ashley meant well. (4) The results of this loan
were surprising and negative for Ashley, for Jan, and for
the friendship. (5) both women felt bad about it but in
different ways. (6) Yes, lending money to a friend can
have very negative consequences, like anger and hurt.

Peer Feedback Sheet
To____________________From_______________________Date__________
1. What I like about this piece of writing is ___________________________.

2. Your main point seems to be _____________________________________.
3. These particular words or lines struck me as powerful:
Words or lines I like them because
_____________________________ _____________________________
_____________________________ _____________________________
4. Some things aren’t clear to me. These lines or parts could be improved
(meaning not clear, supporting points missing, order seems mixed up, writing
not lively):
Lines or parts Need improving because
______________________________ ______________________________
______________________________ ______________________________
5. The one change you could make that would make the biggest improvement in
this piece of writing is ______________________________________.

Checklist: The Process of
Writing Basic Paragraphs

2. Write a clear topic sentence
3. Freewrite or brainstorm, generating facts, details, and
examples.
4. Select ideas for the body of the paragraph.
5. Arrange ideas in a plan or an outline.
6. Write the best first draft you can.
7. Conclude. Don’t just leave the paragraph hanging.
8. Revise as necessary, checking your paragraph for
support and unity.
9. Proofread for errors.

Coherence Through Order
TIME ORDER
• Also known as chronological order
• Suited to stories, histories, instructions
• Includes key words like first, then, next, etc.
• Topic sentence can be implied
SPACE ORDER
• Used in descriptions of people, places, things
• Top to bottom, left to right, front to back, etc.
• Includes key words like near, around, on, etc.
• Topic sentence can be implied
ORDER OF IMPORTANCE
• Most to least important (or vice versa), smallest to largest (or vice
versa), etc.
• Includes key words like more and most

Coherence Through Time Order
(1) In 1905, a poor washerwoman with a homemade hair product started a
business—with $1.50! (2) In just five years, Madam C.J. Walker
established offices and manufacturing centers in Denver, Pittsburgh, and
Indianapolis. (3) The Madame C.J. Walker Manufacturing Company
specialized in hair supplies, but Madame Walker specialized in
independence for herself and others. (4) Although she was not formally
educated, she developed an international sales force, teaching her
African-American agents the most sophisticated business skills. (5) Eight
years after starting her business, Madame Walker was the first African-
American woman to become a self-made millionaire. (6) In addition, she
drew thousands of former farm and domestic workers into the business
world. (7) One of her most original ideas was to establish “Walker Clubs,”
and she awarded cash prizes to the clubs with the most educational and
philanthropic projects in their African-American communities. (8) When
she died in 1919, Madame Walker left two-thirds of her fortune to schools
and charities. (9) Another of her contributions also lived on. (10) After
her death, many of her former employees used their experience to start
businesses throughout the United States and the Caribbean.

Coherence Through Space Order
(1) Just inside the door of Filene’s Basement, Boston’s famous

bargain clothing store, giant hanging signs explain that the longer an
item remains in the store, the cheaper it becomes. (2) All around
the walls, floor-to-ceiling racks are crammed with a random mix of
shoes, sneakers, neckties, and handbags. (3) Counters are
cluttered with rhinestone rings, plastic sunglasses, and silk scarves.
(4) In the center of the floor, huge square bins contain disorganized
piles of shoes and clothes. (5) Customers dig into these jumbled
bins, pulling out yellow rain hats, pink suede pumps, even cheese
graters and other items that belong in a kitchen department. (6)
Friends lose each other in the crowded aisles. (7) Frantic shoppers
often collide as items fly into the air. (8) some customers question
whether any bargain makes this chaos worthwhile, but they always
seem to return. --Emma Lou Haynes (student)

Coherence Through
Order of Importance
(1) Louis Pasteur is revered as a great scientist for his three major
discoveries. (2) Most important, this Frenchman created vaccines
that have saved millions of human and animal lives. (3) The
vaccines grew out of his discovery that weakened forms of a
disease could help the person or animal build up antibodies that
would prevent the disease. (4) The vaccines used today to protect
children from serious illnesses owe their existence to Pasteur’s
word. (5) Almost as important was Pasteur’s brilliant idea that tiny
living beings, not chemical reactions, spoiled beverages. (6) He
developed a process, pasteurization, that keeps milk, wine, vinegar,
and beer from spoiling. (7) Finally, Pasteur found ways to stop a
silkworm disease that threatened to ruin France’s profitable silk
industry. (8) Many medical researchers regard him as the “the
father of modern medicine.”

Coherence Through Related Sentences
• REPEAT important words and pronouns.

• USE synonyms.
• SUBSTITUTE pronouns.
• USE transitional expressions.

Transitional Expressions at a Glance 1
Purpose Transitional Expressions

To add also, and, and then, as well besides,
beyond that, first (second, third, last,
and so on), for one thing, furthermore,
in addition, moreover, next, what is
more
To compare also, as well, both (neither), in the

same way, likewise, similarly


To contrast although, be that as it however, in
contrast, nevertheless, on the contrary,
on the other hand whereas, yet
To concede certainly, granted that, (a point)of

course, no doubt, to be sure


To emphasize above all, especially, indeed, in fact, in
particular, most important, surely
To illustrate as a case in point, as an illustration, for

example, for instance, in particular one
such, yet another


To place above, below, beside, beyond farther,
here, inside, nearby, next to, on the far
side, opposite, outside, to the east
(south, and so on)
To qualify perhaps, maybe
To give a as, because, for, since

reason/cause


To show and so, as a consequence, as a
result/effect result, because of this,
consequently, for this reason, hence,
so, therefore, thus
To all in all, finally, in brief, in other words,

summarize lastly, on the whole, to sum up
after a while, afterward,at last, at

To place present, briefly, currently, during,
in time eventually

Adding Transitional Expressions
What transitional expressions will best guide the reader?
Great athletes do not reach the top by talent alone but by pushing themselves to
the limit and beyond. ________, golf legend Tiger Woods keeps striving for
perfection. Long after dark--even during tournaments--he practices at the driving
range, hitting ball after ball. Even after winning his first Masters Tournament in
1997, Tiger spent 18 months refining his swing. ________, he added twenty
pounds of muscle to his lean frame with a secret training plan. ________ example
is hard-working tennis star Serena Williams, who practices on the court for hours
each day with her sister Venus. Serena builds her speed and strength with yoga,
running, weight-lifting, and boxing. By studying videotapes of all her matches, she
constantly improves her game. Perhaps no player in any sport, _____, can match
the work ethic of Lance Armstrong. ________, this bicycle racer was diagnosed
with testicular cancer that had spread to his brain and lungs. ________ surgery
and chemotherapy left him weak and exhausted, Armstrong began a brutal training
regiment, following a strict diet and cycling up to six hours a day. His commitment
paid off, when in 1999 and every year through 2002, he won the Tour de France,
cycling’s toughest race. ________ many top athletes, he turned his talent into
greatness through sheer hard work.
(See page 68 of Evergreen for possible answers.)

Young Immigrant Translators
When immigrant children become translators for their parents, this can
change the normal relationship between parent and child. Many immigrant
parents do not have the time or opportunity to develop their English skills,
even though they know that speaking English is the most important part of
surviving in the United States. When they need to understand or speak
English, they often ask their school-age children for help. The children
must act like little adults, helping their parents with all kinds of problems.
They end up taking time away from school and their friends because they
are responsible for everything related to English. For example, they might
have to answer the phone, fill out forms, pay bills, or shop for groceries.
Even in more serious situations, like medical or financial problems, the
children might have to translate for the doctor or accountant. Eventually,
some children can start to resent their parents for relying on them so much.
Instead of turning to their parents for help with their homework or personal
worries, they might turn instead to friends or teachers who understand the
culture better. Although most immigrant children know their parents love
them and want a better life for them, the role reversal of being child
translators can make them become adults too soon.
--Mandy Li (student)

The Illustration Paragraph
To illustrate is to explain a general

statement by means of one or more
specific examples.

Illustration Paragraph
Great athletes do not reach the top by talent alone but by pushing
themselves to the limit and beyond. For instance, golf legend Tiger
Woods keeps striving for perfection. Long after dark—even during
tournaments—he practices at the driving range, hitting ball after ball.
Even after winning his first Master’s tournament in 1997, Tiger spent
18 months refining his swing. Recently, he added twenty pounds of
muscle to his lean frame with a secret training plan. Another example
is hard-working tennis star Serena Williams, who practices on the court
for hours each day with her sister Venus. Serena builds her speed and
strength with yoga, running, weight-lifting, and boxing. By studying
videotapes of all her matches, she constantly improves her game.
Perhaps no player in any sport, however, can match the work ethic of
Lance Armstrong. In 1996, this bicycle racer was diagnosed with
testicular cancer that had spread to his brain and lungs. After surgery
and chemotherapy left him weak and exhausted, Armstrong began a
strict training regimen, following a strict diet and cycling up to six hours
a day. His commitment paid off when, in 1999 and again in 2002, he
won the Tour de France, cycling’s toughest race. Like many top
athletes, he turned his talent into greatness through sheer hard work.

Transitional Expressions
for Illustration
for instance another instance of

for example another example of
an illustration another illustration of
of this
a case in point is
here are a few examples
to illustrate

The Process of Writing
an Illustration Paragraph

2. Compose a topic sentence that can be supported
by examples.
3. Freewrite or brainstorm to find examples.
4. Select only the best two to four examples.
5. Make a plan or an outline.
6. Write a draft of your paragraph, using transitional
expressions.
7. Revise as necessary.

The Narrative Paragraph
To narrate is to tell a story that explains

what happened, when it happened, and
who was involved.

Transitional Expressions for Narratives
after finally soon

as (soon as) later then
before meanwhile upon
during next when
first now while

a Narrative Paragraph

2. Compose a topic sentence that tells the point of
the story.
3. Freewrite or brainstorm for all of the events and
details.
4. Select the important events and details.
6. Write a draft of your paragraph.

The Descriptive Paragraph
To describe something—a person, a place,

or an object—is to capture it in words so
others can imagine it or see it in their
mind’s eye.

Indicating Place
next to, near on top, beneath
close, far toward, away
up, down, between left, right, center
above, below front, back, middle

a Descriptive Paragraph

2. Compose a topic sentence that points to what you
will describe or gives an overall impression.
3. Freewrite or brainstorm to find specific details.
4. Select the best details.

Two Kinds of Process Paragraphs
HOW-TO PARAGRAPH
The how-to paragraph gives the reader directions
on how he or she can do something: how to install
a software program, how to get to the airport, or
how to make barbecued ribs.
EXPLANATION PARAGRAPH
The explanation paragraph tells the reader how a
particular event occurred or how something works.

Transitional Expressions for Process
BEGINNING A PROCESS
(at first), initially, begin by
CONTINUING A PROCESS
second (third) step, until, after(ward), then, next, later,
before, when, while, as soon as, as, upon, during,
meanwhile
ENDING A PROCESS
finally, at last

a Process Paragraph

2. Compose a topic sentence that states the goals or
end result of the process.
3. Freewrite or brainstorm to generate steps of the
process.
4. Drop any irrelevant information.
5. Make an outline or a plan for your paragraph.

The Definition Paragraph
To define is to explain clearly what a word

or term means.

Three Ways to
Define a Word or Term
1. Definition by synonym. Supply a word

that means the same thing.
2. Definition by class. Place the word in the
category to which it belongs and provide
distinguishing characteristics.
3. Definition by negation. Tell what the
word is not, then tell what it is.

a Definition Paragraph

2. Compose a topic sentence that uses synonym,
class, or negation.
3. Decide on the best method of development.
4. Freewrite or brainstorm to generate ideas.
5. Select the best ideas.

Comparison and Contrast Paragraphs
To contrast two persons, places, or things

is to examine the ways in which they are
different.
To compare them is to examine the ways in

which they are similar.

Transitional Expressions for Contrast
although on the other hand

whereas in contrast
but while
however yet
conversely unlike

for Comparison
in the same way just as…so

and, also, in addition similarly
as well as like
both, neither too
each of the same

The Process of Writing a Contrast
or Comparison Paragraph

2. Compose a topic sentence that clearly states that a
contrast or a comparison will follow.
3. Freewrite or brainstorm to generate points of comparison
or contrast.
4. Choose the points you will use.
5. List parallel points of contrast or of comparison for both A
and B.

The Classification Paragraph
To classify is to gather into types, kinds, or

categories according to a single basis of
division.

Transitional Expressions for
Classification
can be divided the first type

can be classified the second kind
can be categorized the last category

a Classification Paragraph

2. Decide on a single basis of classification.
3. Compose a topic sentence that clearly shows what you are
dividing into categories or types.
4. List the categories into which the group is being classified.
5. Freewrite, cluster, or brainstorm to generate information,
details, and examples.
6. Select the best details and examples.

The Cause and Effect Paragraph
Causes are the reasons for events.
Effects are the results of a cause or causes.

for Cause and Effect
To Show Causes To Show Effects

the first cause one important effect
(second, third)
the first reason another result
(second, third)
yet another factor a third outcome
because as a result
is caused by consequently
results from then, next, therefore,
thus, so

The Process of Writing a Cause and
Effect Paragraph
2. Decide whether you will emphasize causes or effects.
3. Compose a topic sentence that states the subject and
indicates whether causes or effects will be discussed.
4. Now freewrite, brainstorm, or cluster to find at least
three possible causes or effects.
5. Select the best causes and effects.
6. Make a plan or outline.
7. Write a first draft of your paragraph.

The Persuasive Paragraph
To persuade is to convince someone that a

particular opinion or point of view is the
correct one.

Transitional Expressions for
Persuasion
Give Reasons
first (second, third), another, next, last, finally,
because, since, for
Answer the Opposition

of course, some may say, nevertheless, on the
other hand
Draw Conclusions
therefore, thus, hence, consequently

Methods of Persuasion
1. Facts
2. Referring to an authority
3. Examples
4. Predicting the consequence
5. Answering the opposition

Avoiding Flawed Reasoning 1
Which reason seems irrelevant, illogical, or untrue?
1. If you wanted to persuade someone to do holiday shopping
earlier, you might say that
a. Shopping earlier saves time.
b. More gifts will be in stock.
c. Stores will not be overly crowded.
d. Nora Jones shops early.
2. If you wanted to persuade someone to buy a particular brand

of cereal, you might say that
a. It is inexpensive.
b. It contains vitamins and minerals.
c. It comes in an attractive box.
d. It makes a hearty breakfast.

3. If you wanted to persuade someone to move to your
town, you might say that
a. Two new companies have made jobs available.
b. By moving to this town, he or she will become the
happiest person in the world.
c. There is a wide selection of housing.
d. The area is lovely and still unpolluted.
4. If you wanted to persuade someone to vote for a

particular candidate, you might say that
a. She has always kept her promises to the voters.
b. She has lived in the district for thirty years.
c. She has substantial knowledge of the issues.
d. She dresses very fashionably.

5. If you wanted to persuade someone to learn to read and speak a
foreign language, you might say that
a. Knowledge of a foreign language can be helpful in the business
world.
b. He or she may want to travel in the country where the language
is spoken.
c. Enrique Iglesias sings in two languages.
d. Being able to read great literature in the original is a rewarding
experience.
6. If you wanted to persuade someone to quit smoking, you might say

that
a. Smoking is a major cause of lung cancer.
b. Smoking stains teeth and softens gums.
c. Ashtrays are often hard to find.
d. This bad habit has become increasingly expensive.

a Persuasive Paragraph

2. Compose a topic sentence that clearly states your position for
or against.
3. Freewrite or brainstorm to generate reasons.
4. Select the best three or four reasons.
5. Be sure that your facts are accurate, examples are valid,
references to authorities are not biased, predictions about
consequences are logical, and the opposition’s arguments are
stated fairly and adequately refuted.
6. Make a plan or outline.

Which Paragraph Type?
Choose one method of development by which you

might turn each topic sentence into a good
paragraph.
1. My kitchen is a mess of dirty dishes.

2. The minimum age for a driver’s license should be raised
to 18.
3. In-ground and above-ground pools are alike in several
respects.
4. There are five key steps in planting a tree correctly.
5. Increasing our use of alternative energies will help
reverse environmental damage.

Parts of an Essay
INTRODUCTORY PARAGRAPH
aims to catch the reader’s interest
usually contains a thesis statement
BODY
consists of one, two, three, or more paragraphs,
each one making a different point about the main
idea.
CONCLUSION
brings the essay to a close
might be a sentence or a paragraph long

The Paragraph and the Essay
The Essay
Introduction
Thesis Statement
The Paragraph
Topic Sentence Body of
Body of supporting
supporting paragraphs
statements
Concluding sentence
Conclusion

Four Ways to Link
Paragraphs in Essays
1. REPEAT key words or ideas from thesis

statement.
2. REFER to words or ideas from preceding
paragraph.
3. USE transitional expressions.
4. USE transitional sentences.

Questions to Ask As You Revise
1. Is my thesis statement clear?

2. Does the body of the essay fully support
my thesis statement?
3. Does the essay have unity; does every
paragraph relate to the thesis statement?
4. Does the essay have coherence; do the
paragraphs follow a logical order?

Questions to Ask As You Revise (CONT’D)
5. Are my topic sentences clear?

6. Does each paragraph provide good details,
well-chosen examples, and so on?
7. Is the language exact, concise, and fresh?
8. Are my sentences varied in length and
type?
9. Does the essay conclude, not just leave
off?

Peer Reviewer Questions
1. What do you like about this piece of

writing?
2. What seems to be the main point?
3. Which parts could be improved (for
example, unclear sentences, supporting
points missing, order mixed up, writing not
lively, and so forth)? Be specific.
4. What one change would most improve this
essay?

The Process of Writing an Essay

2. Write a clear thesis statement.
3. Freewrite or brainstorm, generating facts, details, and
examples.
4. Plan or outline your essay.
5. Write a topic sentence for each main idea.
6. Decide on a logical order in which to present the
paragraphs.
7. Plan the body of each paragraph.
8. Write the first draft of your essay.
10. Proofread carefully for errors.

Nine Types of Essays
1. The Illustration Essay

2. The Narrative Essay
3. The Descriptive Essay
4. The Process Essay
5. The Definition Essay
6. The Comparison or Contrast Essay
7. The Classification Essay
8. The Cause and Effect Essay
9. The Persuasive Essay

Two Functions of the Introduction
1. It sets forth the essay’s central idea and

usually contains the thesis statement.
2. It catches the reader’s interest so that he or
she will keep reading.

Six Effective Introductions
1. Begin with a single-sentence thesis

statement.
2. Begin with a general idea and then narrow
to a specific thesis statement.
3. Begin with an illustration.
4. Begin with a surprising fact or idea.
5. Begin with a contradiction.
6. Begin with a direct quotation.

Three Ways to Conclude an Essay
1. End with a call to action.

2. End with a final point.
3. End with a question.

Four Kinds of Titles
1. No-nonsense descriptive title

2. Two-part title
3. Rhetorical question
4. Title related to method of development
used in essay

What Is Plagiarism?
Plagiarism is failing to give proper credit to

an author whose words or ideas you have
used. That is, plagiarism means passing
off someone else’s words or ideas as your
own. Whether intentional or careless,
plagiarism is stealing.

Features of a Summary
Your summary should include:

1. The author, title, and source of the original.
2. The main idea or thesis of the original, in
your own words.
3. The most important supporting ideas or
points of the original, in your own words.
4. A summary should not include the
summarizer’s thoughts or feelings.

The Process of Writing a Summary
1. Read the title and subtitle of the original; do they state its
main idea?
2. Read the original quickly for meaning; then carefully read it
again.
3. Determine the author’s main idea.
4. Now find the main supporting points.
5. Write your topic sentence or thesis statement.
6. In your own words, give the author’s most important
supporting points.
7. Write your summary.
8. Now revise.
9. Proofread.
10. Compare your final draft with the original to avoid plagiarism.

Ways to Introduce Quotations
Mr. Taibi says…

One expert had this to say:
In a recent Times column,
Maureen Dowd observes…
Ms. Luboff writes,…
…, one authority reported.
According to Dr. Haynes,…

Library Resources for Research
1. Online Catalog or Card Catalog

2. Periodical Indexes
3. Statistical Sources
4. Encyclopedias and Reference Books

Internet Sources: Watch Out!
Carefully evaluate all web sources.

1. Who sponsors the site?
2. How balanced and fair is the information?
3. Did an expert write the article?
4. When was the article written?
5. When was the site updated?

MLA Style
A correct citation:
• tells reader that the material is from an
outside source.
• gives reader enough information to find the
original source.
• appears in two places: inside the essay in
parentheses and at the end in a Works
Cited list

Test-Taking Tips
• With classmates, discuss test-taking

strategies that have worked for you in the
past. What methods do you use to budget
your exam time wisely? What advice would
you give someone with test anxiety?
• Compare your ideas to the tips in
Evergreen, pages 253-254.

Instruction Words
Used in College Examinations
1. Classify
2. Compare
3. Contrast
4. Define
5. Discuss (analyze, describe, explain)
6. Discuss causes
7. Discuss effects

Instruction Words
Used in College Examinations (CONT’D)
8. Evaluate
9. Identify
10. Illustrate
11. Narrate (trace)
12. Summarize
13. Take a stand

The Process of Answering
an Essay Question
1. Survey the test.

2. Calculate how much time you need.
3. Read each question carefully.
4. Determine how many parts the answer should contain.
5. Choose the paragraph or essay pattern that would
best answer the question.
6. Write a topic sentence or a thesis statement that
repeats the key words of the question.
7. Quickly freewrite or brainstorm ideas and make a
scratch outline or plan.
8. Write your paragraph or essay neatly, skipping lines.

Nine Great Ways
to Vary Your Sentences
1. Mix long and short sentences.

2. Add an occasional question, command, or
exclamation.
3. Begin with an adverb.
4. Begin with a prepositional phrase.
5. Join ideas with a compound predicate.
6. Join ideas with an –ing modifier.
7. Join ideas with a past participial modifier.
8. Join ideas with an appositive.
9. Join ideas with a relative clause.

Correcting Confusing Modifiers
Correct these sentences by making confusing modifiers

clear.
1. Leaping from tree to tree, the professor spotted a

monkey.
2. Brenda saw a large moose driving her car down State
Street.
3. Lying in the garbage, Teresa found the book.
4. My boss spotted our delivery truck eating lunch
downtown.
5. Chewing wires under the desk, Mr. Nelson saw a small
mouse.

Answer Key:
Correcting Confusing Modifiers
1. The professor spotted a monkey leaping

from tree to tree.
2. Driving her car down State Street, Brenda
saw a large moose.
3. Teresa found the book lying in the garbage.
4. Eating lunch downtown, my boss spotted
our delivery truck.
5. Mr. Nelson saw a small mouse chewing
wires under the desk.

Trite Expressions
and Cliches
at this point in time in this day and age

awesome last but not least
better late than never living hand to mouth
beak the ice one in a million
cold cruel world out of this world
cool, hot sad but true
cry your eyes out tried and true
easier said than done under the weather
free as a bird work like a dog
hustle and bustle green with envy

Coordinating Conjunctions
and for or yet
but nor so

Subordinating Conjunctions
after because since when(ever)
although before unless whereas
as (if) if until while

Conjunctive Adverbs
consequently
furthermore
however
in fact
indeed
moreover
nevertheless
then
therefore

Run-ons and Comma Splices
• A run-on sentence incorrectly runs together two

independent clauses without a conjunction or
punctuation:
My neighbor Mr. Hoffman is seventy-five years old he

plays tennis every Saturday afternoon.
• A comma splice incorrectly joins two independent

clauses with a comma but no conjunction:
My neighbor Mr. Hoffman is seventy-five years old,

he plays tennis every Saturday afternoon.

Five Ways to Correct a
Run-on or Comma Splice
1. Use two separate sentences:
My neighbor Mr. Hoffman is seventy-five years old. He

2. Use a coordinating conjunction:
My neighbor Mr. Hoffman is seventy-five years old, but he

3. Use a subordinating conjunction:
Although my neighbor Mr. Hoffman is seventy-five years

old, he plays tennis every Saturday afternoon.

Five Ways to Correct a
Run-on or Comma Splice (CONT’D)
4. Use a semicolon:
My neighbor Mr. Hoffman is seventy-five years

old; he plays tennis every Saturday afternoon.
5. Use a semicolon and a conjunctive adverb:
My neighbor Mr. Hoffman is seventy-five years

old; however, he plays tennis every Saturday
afternoon.

Six Types of Sentence Fragments
1. Dependent clause fragment

2. Relative clause fragment
3. -ing fragment
4. Prepositional phrase fragment
5. Appositive phrase fragment
6. Infinitive phrase fragment

Review Chart:
Correcting Sentence Fragments 1
F=Fragment C=Corrected
1. Dependent clause fragment

F: After Jake moved to Colorado.
C: After Jake moved to Colorado,
he learned to ski.
2. Relative clause fragment

F: Who loves computer games.
C: My niece, who loves computer games,
repairs my computer.

Review Chart:
3. -ing modifier fragment

F: Surfing the web.
C: Surfing the web, we visited European
art museum sites.
4. Prepositional phrase fragment

F: Inside the cave.
C: They found mastodon bones inside
the cave.

Review Chart:
5. Appositive fragment
F: A slow student.
C: Einstein, a slow student, proved to be a
genius.
6. Infinitive phrase fragment

F: To go dancing tonight.
C: She wants to go dancing tonight.

Subject-Verb Agreement
Don’t let the s mislead you:
The light flicker s.

(singular subject, singular verb)
The light s flicker.

(plural subject, plural verb)

Tricky Subject-Verb Agreement
• Special singular constructions: Each of the

brothers loves soccer.
• Separation of subject and verb: The economist’s
ideas on this matter surprise me.
• Sentences beginning with There or Here: There
seem to be two flies in my soup.
• Questions: Where are your copies of the annual
report?
• Relative clauses: People who have a good sense
of humor make good neighbors.

Making Nouns Plural
Change each subject and verb from singular to plural:

• The window looks dusty.
• The orchid needs water.
• The flat-screen television costs too much.

Change each subject and verb from plural to singular:
• The students graduate in May.
• My relatives live in Texas.
• The children juggle coconuts.

Answer Key:
Making Nouns Plural
• The windows look dusty.

• The orchids need water.
• The flat-screen televisions cost too much.
• The student graduates in May.

• My relative lives in Texas.
• The child juggles coconuts.

Nouns that Do Not Change from
Singular to Plural
Singular Plural
deer deer
equipment equipment
fish fish
merchandise merchandise

Forming Hyphenated Noun Plurals
Singular Plural
brother-in-law brothers-in-law
maid-of-honor maids-of-honor
passer-by passers-by

Making Pronouns
and Antecedents Agree
Choose the correct pronoun.

1. Everyone should bring (their, his or her) laptop to class.
2. Can you go with George and (I, me) to the film festival?
3. The French club has elected (its, their) president.
4. To (who, whom) should I send this check?
5. Tiffany gave concert tickets to my girlfriend and (I, me).
6. Each of the women has bleached (her, their) hair blonde.
7. The van followed Jake and (he, him) at a distance .
8. She has more tattoos than (they, them).
9. My sister and (I, myself) plan to open a restaurant.
10. The mall shopper should throw (their, his or her) trash in the
trash can.

Answer Key: Making Pronouns and
Antecedents Agree
1. Everyone should bring his or her laptop to class.

2. Can you go with George and me to the film festival?
3. The French club has elected its president.
4. To whom should I send this check?
5. Tiffany gave concert tickets to my girlfriend and me.
6. Each of the women has bleached her hair blonde.
7. The van followed Jake and him at a distance .
8. She has more tattoos than they.
9. My sister and I plan to open a restaurant.
10. The mall shopper should throw his or her trash in the
trash can.

Forming Comparatives
(Think: COMPARE Two Things)
To form comparatives
• and adverbs that have one syllable (short/shorter,
fast/faster, thin/thinner)
• Place the word more before adjectives and
adverbs that two or more syllables (more foolish,
more rotten, more happily)
• Exception: To show the comparative of two-
syllable adjectives ending in –y, change the y to i
and add –er (happy/happier, silly/sillier,
funny/funnier)

Forming Superlatives
(Think: SUPERlative Is Best)
To form superlatives
• Add –est to adjectives and adverbs of one syllable
(short, shorter, shortest)
• Place the word most before adjectives and
adverbs that have two or more syllables (foolish,
more foolish, most foolish)
• Exception: With two-syllable adjectives ending in –
y, change the y to i and –est (happy, happier,
happiest)

Comma Rules 1
1. COMMAS SEPARATE ITEMS IN A SERIES: They ordered
a salad, soup, and dessert.
2. COMMAS FOLLOW MOST INTRODUCTORY PHRASES,
BUT NOT ALL PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES OF 2-3
WORDS: To reduce stress, you must learn to say no. In July
she won the lottery.
3. COMMAS SET OFF THE NAME OF A PERSON BEING
ADDRESSED: I meant it, Joe, when I told you to whisper.
4. COMMAS SET OFF APPOSITIVES EXCEPT THOSE OF
ONE WORD: Monticello, the home of Thomas
Jefferson, is in Charlottesville, Virginia. Her son José joined
the Army.
5. COMMAS SET OFF PARENTHETICAL EXPRESSIONS:
The whale is, as a mater of fact, the world’s largest creature.

Comma Rules 2
6. COMMAS SET OFF ITEMS OF A DATE: The baby was
born on Monday, December 30, 2002, and his parents took
him home on Wednesday.
7. COMMAS SET OFF ELEMENTS OF AN ADDRESS:
This spring, we will visit Missoula, Montana, and Washington,
D.C.
8. COMMAS SEPARATE TWO CONSECUTIVE
ADJECTIVES: A cold-hearted, scheming player won
that reality show.
9. COMMAS SET OFF DEGREES AFTER A PERSON’S
NAME: Juanita Lopez, R.N., works in the pediatric ward.
10. WHEN A COORDINATING CONJUNCTION JOINS TWO
INDEPENDENT IDEAS, A COMMA PRECEDES THE
CONJUNCTION: I need to lose some weight, so I will walk
30 minutes a day.

Comma Rules 3
11.WHEN A SEMICOLON AND A CONJUNCTIVE
ADVERB JOIN TWO INDEPENDENT IDEAS, A
COMMA FOLLOWS THE CONJUNCTIVE
ADVERB: I need to lose some weight; therefore, I
will walk 30 minutes a day.
12.WHEN A SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION
LINKS A DEPENDENT AND AN INDEPENDENT
IDEA, A COMMA FOLLOWS THE DEPENDENT
IDEA: Because I need to lose some weight, I will
walk 30 minutes a day.
13.IF THE INDEPENDENT IDEA FIRST, NO
COMMA IS NEEDED: I will walk 30 minutes a day
because I need to lose some weight.

Proofreading
Proofread this paragraph and make all necessary
corrections.
(1) If you want to eat well and do our planet a favor become a Vegetarian.
(2) Most vegetarian’s eat eggs, milk, dairy products and fish. (3) All youre
giving up are leathery steak’s and overcooked chicken. (4) A vegetarian
dinner might begin with a greek salad of crisp cucumbers, sweet red onion
black olives, and a sprinkling of feta cheese. (5) Youll think you’re sitting in
a little café overlooking the mediterranean sea. (6) for the main course,
head to mexico for tamale pie. (7) a rich, flavorful dish made of pinto
bean’s, brown rice, green peppers and tomatoes. (8) On the table of
course is a loaf of warm bread. (9) Do you have room for dessert how
about some ben and jerrys ice cream, made in vermont? (10) As you linger
over a cup of french espresso coffee think how your vegetarian meal was
delicious, nutritious, and a help to our planet. (11) If more people ate
vegetarian the land given to raising cattle and crops to feed cattle could be
used for raising grain many of the worlds hungry people could be fed. (12)
To read about vegetarianism, get the best-known guide laurels kitchen: a
handbook for vegetarian cookery and nutrition.

Ailing Headlines
Find and correct the errors in the following

headlines:
• Museum Buys Rare Oriental Rag
• Our Champagne Spackles with Quality
• Dymanic Duo Wow Boston
• Yanks Triumphs, Mets Stroke Out

Identifying Misspelled Words
Find the misspelled word in each group. Spell it
correctly.
1. technique, vacuum, salery, schedule

2. fourty, certain, justify, label
3. magazine, parallel, minnimum, existence
4. flexible, restaurant, carreer, convenient
5. vacancy, attornies, apologize, desperate
6. misspell, intelligent, amount, answer
7. quantity, hurredly, unique, actually
8. label, competition, committee, gaurantee
9. financial, recommend, jealous, opponet
10. persuade, seperate, annual, jeopardy

Identifying Misspelled Words (CONT’D)
Find the misspelled word in each group. Spell it
correctly.
11. divide, mortgage, continully, origin

12. criticism, quanity, pamphlet, athlete
13. libary, exaggerate, professor, cancellation
14. existence, category, confrence, approximate
15. forward, development, interupt, nickel
16. generally, usualy, brilliant, satisfactory
17. aquaint, questionnaire, parallel, imagine
18. bureau, asistant, unnecessary, strength
19. benefit, laboratory, article, abcense
20. excellent, duplacate, meant, temperament

Reading Strategies for Writers
1. Note the title.

2. Underline main ideas.
3. Write your reactions in the margins.
4. Prepare questions.
5. Note possible composition topics.
6. Note effective writing.
7. Circle unfamiliar words
8. Vary your pace.
9. Reread.
10. Don’t overdo it.

The Writing Process: Paragraph Development Lecture # 4, 5 and 6 Notes For Student Objectives Exams

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The Writing Process

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Slide

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Slide

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Read these sentences from real job-application

1. I have lurnt Word and computer spreadsheet programs.

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4. Let’s meet, so you can “ooh” and “aah” over my

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Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Slide

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Slide

As a class, discuss what you’d like to know

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Slide

The topic sentence states the main idea. The

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Slide

A distinct division of written material that

1.Unity: focuses on one main idea

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Slide 1

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Slide 1

Identify the topic sentence.

The summer picnic gave ladies a chance to show off their

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Slide 1

Identify the topic sentence.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Slide 1

1. Narrow the topic.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Slide 1

Evaluate and revise these topic sentences:

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• Check your topic sentence. Revise if it’s

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 The most important sentence in the paragraph.

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• Use examples and

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(1) Lending money to a friend can have negative

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1. What I like about this piece of writing is ___________________________.

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1. Narrow the topic.

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Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Slide 2

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Slide 2

(1) Just inside the door of Filene’s Basement, Boston’s famous

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Slide 2

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Slide 2

• REPEAT important words and pronouns.

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Purpose Transitional Expressions

To compare also, as well, both (neither), in the

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Purpose Transitional Expressions

To concede certainly, granted that, (a point)of

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Purpose Transitional Expressions

To illustrate as a case in point, as an illustration, for

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Slide 3

Purpose Transitional Expressions

To qualify perhaps, maybe

To give a as, because, for, since

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Slide 3

Purpose Transitional Expressions

To all in all, finally, in brief, in other words,

after a while, afterward,at last, at