8.

3 Photosynthesis
The photosynthesis song
Image from a TEM
 Remember this?
OXIDATION
Loss of electrons or Loss of Hydrogen or Gain of oxygen

REDUCTION
Gain of electrons or Gain of Hydrogen or Loss of Oxygen

The hydrogen carrier in photosynthesis is called NADP+.

What was it called in respiration?
Is NADP+ oxidised or reduced?
Is NADPH + H+ oxidised or reduced?
 Photosynthesis consists of light-dependent
and light independent reactions.
Reaction Location Input Output
Light dependent

Light independent
Explain the light-dependent reactions.
Diagram of light dependent reaction
1. Photoactivation of photosystem II
2. Photolysis of water
3. Electron transport system
4. Photoactivation of photosystem I
5. Reduction of NADP+  NADPH + H+
6. Non-cyclic phosphorylation
7. Cyclic phosphoryltion
 Mega quick summary
PS2
• Light hits special chlorophyll in PS2 and excites electrons – photoactivation. These electrons
enter an electron transport chain
• Water splits to form e-, H+ and O2.
• O2 diffuses out via stomata, e- replace the ones that just entered the electron transport
chain.
• H+ gets pumped across membrane, then diffuses back into stroma via ATP synthase,
making ATP.
• Electrons at end of chain pass to PS1
PS1
• Light hits special chlorophyll in PS1 and excites electrons – photoactivation. These electrons
enter a different electron transport chain. They are replaced by the electrons from PS2
• At the end of THIS chain, the electrons help reduce NADP+ into NADPH + H+, which passes
into Calvin cycle.

This is non cyclic photophosphorylation.

Cyclic photophosphorlation happens when the plant runs out of NAD+ so it can’t make any
NADPH + H+, instead it recycles the electrons back into the PS1 chain
 The light dependent reactions (1)

The light dependent reactions happen on the thylakoid membrane / in

the stroma.
Chlorophyll (and other light absorbing pigments) is found in structures
known as electron carriers / photosystems.
Light first hits photosystem 2 / photosystem 1 .
The light energy depresses / excites electrons in special chlorophyll
molecules, which makes them jump up to a higher / lower energy level
(This is known as photoactivation) and get donated to an electron
acceptor molecule / proton pump called plastoquinone.
The plastoquinone molecules then moves the electrons to the start of
the krebs cycle / an electron transport chain.
As the electrons are passed from molecule to molecule down the chain,
hydrogen / energy is released.
This is used to passively / actively pump H+ ions (also known as
neutrons / protons) across the membrane into the thylakoid space/
stroma. A low / high concentration of H+ ions then builds up.
The H+ ions (also known as electrons / protons) then flow back into the
stroma / matrix through the enzyme ATP synthase / ATP phosphorylase
down their chemiosmotic gradient
As they flow though, their kinetic energy is used to phosphorylate ADP into
ATP.
It is pretty much exactly the same as how ATP is made in the electron
transport chain of aerobic respiration, so this method has the same name –
chemiosmosis
The special chlorophyll molecule, which donated the electrons to
ubiquinone / plastoquinone became very oxidised / reduced.
It is now able to cause water molecules to join together / split apart in a
process called hydrolysis / photolysis. Water splits to form O2 , 4H+ and
4e-..The oxygen leaves the plant via the stomata / xylem vessels
The e- are used to replace / bond with the original electrons that were
given to plastoquinone.
Some H+ can be pumped across the membrane into the thylakoid space /
stroma using energy from the Calvin cycle / electron transport chain as
previously mentioned.
 The light dependent reactions (2)

Whilst all this is going on, light also hits photosystem 1 / photosystem 2 and photoactivates
the special chlorophyll molecules there.
Again, protons / electrons are excited to a higher energy level and they enter a different
electron transport chain / a cycle of reactions located on the thylakoid membrane.

At the end of this electron transport chain, the electrons are used to reduce / oxidise
NADP+ into NADPH + H+
This then goes forward into the light independent reaction (Calvin cycle) which happens in
the stroma / outer membrane

The electrons that just left photosystem 1 are replaced with /chemically bonded to
electrons that just reached the end of the electron transport chain that began with
photosystem 2.

This whole process so far is known as non cyclic / cyclic photophosphorylation.

Non cyclic photophosphorilation

This involves PS1/ PS2 ONLY.

Sometimes the plant runs out of NAD+ / NADP+ e.g. if CO2 concentration is
very low / high.
Instead of being used to oxidise / reduce NADP+, the protons / electrons are
simply fed back into the electron transport chain connecting the 2
photosystems
In this way, the plant can continue to produce ATP / oxygen until CO2 levels
have risen / fallen again.

DID YOU KNOW that plants don’t simply rely on

mitochondria to produce ATP? They use
photosynthesis, too!
 More for you!
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q_1mxZdF2TY
Mr W Photosynthesis singing lecture
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sQK3Yr4Sc_k
Crash course photosynthesis

Light dependent reactions colouring summary sheet

Next lesson – the light Independent reactions

(Calvin Cycle)
 Can you compare…
The electron transport chains in aerobic
respiration and the light dependent reactions of
photosynthesis?

Cyclic and non cyclic photophosphorilation

 The Light Independent reactions (Calvin cycle)

TED Ed http://ed.ted.com/lessons/nature-s-smallest-factory-the-calvin-cycle-cathy-
symington
Why do we say light independent
reaction, rather than ‘dark’
reaction?

If you kept a plant in the dark,

the light dependent reactions
would stop.

Would the light independent

reactions stop too? Why / why
not?
Where do the light independent reactions
happen?
RuBP stands for…………………………………………… and it’s function is to……………………………………
Rubisco is an ………………………………………………….. And it’s function is
to…………………………………
GP stands for……………………………………. TP stands for ………………………………………………………….
The first step in the light independent reaction is known as carbon fixation /
decarboxylation.
3 x Carbon dioxide, which contains 3 / 1 carbon atoms, are joined to an acceptor
molecule known as RuBP / GALP which contains 6 / 5 carbon atoms.
This reaction is catalysed by one of the worlds most common enzymes, bigdisco/rubisco.
(Full name ribulose bisphophate carboxylase!)
3 x 6 carbon molecules are formed which are stable / unstable and immediately break
down into 4/6 molecules of G3P, which contains 3/6 carbons.
Next, the G3P is oxidized / reduced into triose phosphate by the addition of oxygen /
hydrogen. This requires energy so ADP / ATP is used. Now we finally have a carbohydrate!
Carbohydrates all contain C,H and O / C, N and H.
2 triose phosphate molecules can now split / join together to form a pentose / hexose
phosphate sugar which can then have the phosphates removed and be converted to
sugars such as glucose, and starch.
But there is a problem – if ALL the triose phosphate was used in this way, the cycle would
speed up / stop, as there would be no more rubisco / RuBP to bind with the carbon
dioxide.
So out of every 6 triose phosphate molecules produced, only 1 / 2 can be used to make
sugars, the other 4/5 are used to regenerate RuBP. This regeneration uses up ATP / NADP+
So for every 3 carbon dioxide molecule entering the Calvin / Krebs cycle, the cycle must
spin 3/ 2 times to create 1 molecule of glucose which has 6 carbons.
Pg 115 How is the chloroplast adapted for photosynthesis?

It is adapted to absorb light because…

A large proton gradient can be formed

across the thylakoid membrane to help
ATP synthesis because……..

The enzymes needed for the Calvin cycle

work effectively because…….
If a plant does not have enough
light, why does photosynthesis
slow down?

If a plant does not have enough

CO2, why does photosynthesis
slow down?

If a plant gets too hot, why does

photosynthesis stop?
 More for you!
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q_1mxZdF2TY
Mr W Photosynthesis singing lecture on light
DEPENDENT reactions
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OYSD1jOD1dQ
Mr W singing lecture on the Calvin cycle and non
cyclic electron flow
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sQK3Yr4Sc_k
Crash course photosynthesis
• Light dependent reactions colouring summary sheet
• SmartBacc – photosynthesis and respiration
sections
Megan ignore the rest of this it’s unfinished / for
new IB course
 Application – Calvin’s experiment to elucidate the carboxylation of RuBP
http://www.snabonline.com/Content/TopicResources/Topic5/Activities/Interactives/5_6/5--6.swf
Google ‘Calvin Lollipop SNAB’
http://wps.prenhall.com/wps/media/objects/1109/1135896/8_3.html
Animation of experiment

Hi, I’m Melvin Calvin

and I won the Nobel
Prize for chemistry in
1961. Why don’t you
label my lollipop
apparatus?
Melvin Calvin (amazing name!) investigated the light dependent / light
independent reactions of photosynthesis.
He did this by growing algae / pea plants.
He supplied the growing plants with normal / radioactive Carbon 12 / 14.
(Plants usually get their Carbon from Carbon Dioxide, but in this experiment,
he gave them Hydrogen Carbonate )
He let the plants grow for the same / different amounts of time and then
killed them by pouring them into ethanol / water. He then analysed which
compounds had incorporated the radioactive Carbon at that point using
distillation / chromatography.
He found that the compounds formed a chain of reactions / cycle of
reactions and was able to determine the order that the chemicals formed.
He found that the Carbon initially joins to a molecule called RuBP / GP and
then forms Pyruvate / GP (Glycerate 3 Phorphate), followed by a Triose
Phosphate (TP) / Acetyl
Next came Hexose Phosphates, after which other sugars and amino acids
were formed.
Why was this experiment know as the ‘lollipop’ experiment, or the ‘lollipop’
apparatus?

The flask was FLAT, not conical – why?

TOK link: This experiment showed considerable creativity. To what extent is

the creation of an elegant protocol (experimental method) similar to the
creation of a work of art?
Explain the concept of limiting factors in
photosynthesis, with reference to light
intensity, temperature and concentration of
carbon dioxide.
 Light
• Rate of photosynthesis increases as light intensity increases
• Photosynthetic rate reaches plateau at high light levels
– because photosystems are absorbing photons at a
maximum rate
 CO2
• photosynthetic rate reaches plateau at high light levels
• up to a maximum when rate levels off
– because ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase is fixing carbon
at a maximum rate
 Temperature
• rate of photosynthesis increases with increase in temperature
– because greater kinetic energy creates more collisions
between enzymes and substrates
• up to optimal level / maximum
• high temperatures reduce the rate of photosynthesis
– because high temperature denatures enzymes
– by breaking intermolecular forces
– altering the active sites
Spare slides
 1. Photoactivation of photosystem II:
a) photons of visible light absorbed by chlorophyll
b) chlorophyll a is reduced as it gains energy
c) chlorophyll a oxidized when excited e-s move to electron
transport system
 2. photolysis of water:
a) oxidized chlorophyll a (chl+) has a lack of electrons
b) which are replaced as H2O is split: H2O ----> 2 H+ + 2
e-s + 1/2 O2
c) H+:
1) remain in thylakoid interior, lowering pH
2) contributing to chemiosmotic gradient
3) used in phosphorylation of ATP
d) 2 electrons: replace electrons lost by chlorophyll a to
ETS: chl a+ + 2 e-s ----> chl a
e) 1/2 O2: lost to environment as a waste product
 3. electron transport system:
Proteins embedded in the thylakoid membrane
transfer energy along a pathway in a series of
redox reactions:
a) from PsII to PsI
b) from PsI to NADP+
c) some energy used to pump H+ ions from stroma
to thylakoid interior lowering pH
d) contributing to chemiosmotic gradient used in
phosphorylation of ATP
 4. photoactivation of photosystem I:

a) photons of visible light absorbed by

pigments, esp. chlorophyll a, at 700 nm
b) chlorophyll a is reduced as it gains energy
c) chlorophyll a oxidized when excited e-s move
to electron transport system
 5. reduction of NADP+  NADPH + H+:

a) gain of 2 e-s from ETS

b) reduces NADP+ ----> NADPH + H+
 6. non-cyclic photophosphorylation:

a) one-way flow of 2 e-s from water to PsII to

ETS to PsI to NADP+
b) 2 main products:
1) NADPH + H+
2) ATP
 7. cyclic photophosphorylation:
a) cyclic flow of e-s from PsI to ETS back to PsI
b) 1 main product: ATP
 8.2.4
Explain photophosphorylation in terms of
chemiosmosis.
• Thylakoid interior: pH = 4 as a result of:
a) photolysis of H2O ----> 2 H+ + 2 e-s + 1/2 O2
b) ETS H+ pump
c) H+ flow down chemiosmotic gradient
1) from thylakoid interior (pH = 4) through protein channel
and into stroma (pH = 8)
2) energy released used by ATP synthetase to phosphorylate
ADP + Pi --> ATP
 8.2.5
Explain the light-independent reactions.
Include the roles of ribulose bisphosphate
(RuBP) carboxylase, reduction of glycerate 3-
phosphate (GP) to triose phosphate (TP),
NADPH + H+, ATP, regeneration of RuBP, and
subsequent synthesis of more complex
carbohydrates.
 Light independent reaction
• The energy trapped from sunlight in the light dependent
reaction (ATP and NADPH) is used to fix carbon from
carbon dioxide into organic molecules.
• The reaction called the Calvin Cycle takes place in the
stroma and is controlled by enzymes.
• Ribulose Bisphosphate Carboxylase (Rubisco) allows carbon
(carbon dioxide) to be fixed into an initial organic molecule
• RBCase therefore can be seen as a link between
inorganic(non-living) and the organic (living) e.g. Primary
productivity
 Carbon fixation
The single carbon in carbon dioxide is first
trapped by Ribulose bisphosphate (5C) to form
a 2 molecules of Glycerate-3-phosphate (GP).
 Reduction
GP is reduced to a Triose-phosphate(TP) in the process
NADPH and ATP are oxidised to provide the energy

TP is used to manufacture a variety of organic molecules

including Glucose-phosphate
 Regeneration
Some of the TP is used to regenerate Ribulose
Bisphosphate. This will allow more carbon
dioxide to be fixed from the atmosphere.
 8.2.6
Explain the relationship between the
structure of the chloroplast and its function.
Structure Function
Large thylakoid surface area Increases area for light
absorption
Small space inside thylakoid Accumulation and
concentration of hydrogens
Fluid filled stroma Concentration of calvin cycle
enzymes
 8.2.7
Explain the relationship between the action spectrum
and the absorption spectrum of photosynthetic
pigments in green plants.
• White light from the sun is a short section of the much
larger electromagnetic spectrum.
• White light is made up of a range of wavelengths that
correspond to the colours we can see.
• Longer wavelength have less energy (red light) whilst
shorter wavelengths have more energy include blue
light.
 Using a colorimeter different wavelengths of
light are passed through and the absorption is
measured .
This absorption spectra for chlorophyll shows:
• absorption of blue light
• absorption of red light
• green light is reflected.
• Notice the Y-axis is rate of photosynthesis
• The rate of photosynthesis is measured at
different wavelengths.
• The maximum rate are at the blue end and red
end of the visible spectrum.
• The lowest rates are in the yellow greens.
• Chlorophylls are absorbing blue and red light
well but not green.
 8.2.8
Explain the concept of limiting factors in
photosynthesis, with reference to light
intensity, temperature and concentration of
carbon dioxide.
 Light
• rate of photosynthesis increases as light intensity increases
• photosynthetic rate reaches plateau at high light levels
– because photosystems are absorbing photons at a
maximum rate
 CO2
• photosynthetic rate reaches plateau at high light levels
• up to a maximum when rate levels off
– because ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase is fixing carbon
at a maximum rate
 Temperature
• rate of photosynthesis increases with increase in temperature
– because greater kinetic energy creates more collisions
between enzymes and substrates
• up to optimal level / maximum
• high temperatures reduce the rate of photosynthesis
– because high temperature denatures enzymes
– by breaking intermolecular forces
– altering the active sites
Calvins experiment lollipop
http://www.snabonline.com/Content/TopicReso
urces/Topic5/Activities/Interactives/5_6/5--
6.swf
Skill – Annotation of Chloroplast diagram

Part 1 – Structure of a chloroplast

Draw and label a diagram showing the structure
of a chloroplast as seen in electron
micrographs.

Miniwhiteboards!
Skill – Annotation of Chloroplast diagram

Part 2 – Structure of a chloroplast

Draw and label a diagram of a chloroplast.
Annotate it to indicate how it is adapted for its
function.

Miniwhiteboards!