Forms of superstructure.

Structural frames
Steel.
Concrete.
Timber.
Concrete
States of concrete
 Concrete hydration
 Concrete solidifies and hardens after mixing
with water and placement due to chemical
process known as hydration.

 The water reacts with the cement, which bonds

the other components together, eventually
creating a stone like material.
 Concrete mix
 Mix design is the term used to define how the
concrete will be mixed and how it will be
placed to form the structure.

 Batching is the process of measuring concrete

mix ingredients either by volume or by mass
and introducing them to mixture. Traditionally
batching is done by volume.
 Concrete mix
Grade Ratio Cement Sand Metal

15 1:3:6 1 3 6

20 1:2:4 1 2 4

25 1:1½:3 1 1½ 3

40 1:1:2 1 1 2
 Accelerators

 Accelerators are added to concrete either to

increase the rate of early strength development or
to shorten the time of setting or both.

 Usage of accelerators are depend on

Temperature of the mix.
 Retarders
 Retarders slow down the hydration of
cement. In simple words is decrease the
setting time of the concrete.
 Aggregates

Coarse aggregates Fine aggregates

Above 5mm dia. Below 5mm dia.
 Aggregates
 Selection of aggregates is an important process.

Consideration when selecting aggregates.

 Grading.
 Durability.
 Particle shape and surface texture.
 Unit weights and voids.
 Admixtures
 Accelerators.

 Retarders.
 Mixing of concrete
 The mixing operation consists of rotation and
stirring, the ingredients of the concrete to uniform
mass.
 This uniformity must not be disturbed by the
process of discharging from the mixer.
 There are several types of concrete mixers are
used to mix concrete.
 Some of them are batch mixers, tilting drum
mixers, pan type mixers & continuous mixers.
Batch mixer
Tilting drum mixer
Pan type mixer
Continuous mixer
 Concrete mixers
 The efficiency of the concrete mixer can be
measure by the viability variability of the samples
from the mix.

 Mixing time depends on the type and size of the

mixer and on the speed of rotating.

 Capacity of the mixers are varying from 1 cubic

yard to 10 cubic yards.
 Ready mixed concrete
 If instead of being batched and mixed on site,
concrete is delivered for placing from a central
plant. Such central plants are known as batching
plants.
 The concrete produced at batching plants are
normally referred as ready mix concrete or pre-
mixed concrete.
 Ready mix concrete produce in such batching plants
are transported to the site by using truck mixers.
 Ready mixed concrete
 This type of concrete is used extensively when constructing
multi storied structures and offers numerous advantages in
comparison with other methods of manufacture. Some of the
advantages are as follows.
1. Close quality control of batching which reduces the
variability of the desired properties of hardened concrete.
2. Use on congested sites where there is little space for a
mixing plant and aggregate stock pile.
3. Use of truck mixers to ensure care in transportation, thus
prevent segregation and maintain workability.
4. Convenience when small quantities of concrete or
intermittent placing is required.
Ready mix batching plant
Ready mix truck
 Quality control
 There are TWO major tests are used to control
the quality of the concrete.
 They are
– Slump test.
– Cube tests.
 Slump test is used to control the workability of
the concrete.
 Cube test is used to ascertain the required
strength of the concrete.
Slump test
Compression test
Falsework
 Falsework consists of temporary structures used in
construction to support spanning or arched structures
in order to hold the component in place until its
construction is sufficiently advanced to support itself.
 Falsework also includes temporary support structures
such as formwork used to mould concrete to form a
desired shape and scaffolding to give workers access
to the structure being constructed.

27
 BS 5975 (BS code of practice for False
work) defines falsework as: Any temporary
structure used to support a permanent
structure while it is not self-supporting.

28
 Formwork

 Formwork is a structure, usually temporary

which is designed to contain fluid concrete.
 The term formwork includes the materials
actually in contact with the concrete and all
necessary supporting structure.

29
 It must be designed,
– To allow the concrete to form into the required shape
and dimensions
– To support the concrete, the people working on the
structure, plant required for placing concrete and
weather loadings until the concrete cures sufficiently
to become self-supporting.

30
31
Formwork system is the key factor
determining the success of a construction
project in terms of,

– Speed
– Quality
– Cost
– Safety of works

32
 Considerations in using formwork
Design related considerations
 Shape of the building.
 Architectural features on building exterior.
 Internal layout.
 Structural form.
 Building dimensions.
 Span.
 Finishing standard.

33
 Considerations in using formwork
Construction related considerations

 Complexity of the built environment.

 Speed of work.
 Number of possible reuses.
 Construction planning and arrangement.
 Area or volume of cast per pour.
 Provision of construction joint.
 Ease of access to work.
34
 Functional requirements of formwork

 Built and erected so that required shape, size, position

and finish of concrete are obtained.

 Strong enough to take the pressure of fresh concrete, and

any other loads, without distortion(bend), leakage, failure
or danger to workmen.

 Designed and constructed so that it can be easily and

quickly erected and struck (come into contact with), so
saving both time and money.

35
 Able to struck without damage to the concrete or to
itself.

 Able to be handled using available equipment or to

be manhandled if necessary.

 Arrangement of formwork must provide access for

the concrete handling and placing, and the necessary
safety precautions relating to work areas and
platforms must be followed.

36
 Joints between members must be tight enough to
prevent grout leakage.

 Reuse – For in-situ concrete to be an economical

form of construction, the formwork needs to be
reused as many times as possible.

37
 Types of formwork
Foundation formwork

Column formwork

Beam formwork

Slab formwork

38
 Beam formwork

 Basically a three sided box supported and propped in the correct

position and to the required level.
 The beam formwork sides have to retain the wet concrete in the
required shape and be able to withstand the initial pressure of
the wet concrete.
 Whereas the formwork soffit apart from retaining the concrete
has to support the initial load of the wet concrete and finally the
set concrete until it has gained sufficient strength to be self
supporting.
39
 It is essential that all joints in the formwork are
constructed to prevent the leakage of grout which
could result in defects.

 The removal time for the formwork will vary with air
temperature, humidity and consequent curing rate

40
Beam formwork

41
Beam formwork

42
Formwork for beams

43
 Column formwork
 Consists of a vertical mould of the required shape and
size which has to retain the wet concrete and resist the
initial pressure caused by the wet concrete.

 The head of the column formwork can be used to support

the incoming beam formwork which gives good top
lateral restraint but results in complex formwork.

44
 Alternatively the column can be cast to the underside of
the beams.

 Column forms are located at the bottom around a 75 to

100 mm high concrete plinth or kicker which has the
dual function of location and preventing grout loss from
the bottom of the column formwork.

45
Column formwork

46
 Foundation formwork
 If the formwork is firm & hard, it may be possible to
excavate the trench for the foundations to the size & depth
required & cast the concrete against excavated faces.

 Where this method is not practicable formwork will be

required.

 Side & end panels are required these should be firmly

strutted against the excavation faces to resist the
horizontal pressures of the wet concrete & to retain the
formwork in the correct position.

47
Foundation formwork

48
 Slab formwork
 Floor or roof slab formwork consists of panels
of size that can be easily handled. The panels
can be framed or joisted & supported by the
beam forms with any intermediate propping
which is required .

49
 Site work in relation to formwork

 When the formwork is fabricated & assembled the

interior of formwork should be cleared of all dirt &

grease before the application of mould oil or any

releasing agent. All joints & holes should be checked to

ensure that they are grout tight.

 Distance from the mixer to the formwork should be kept

as short as possible to maintain the workability of the mix

50
 Site work in relation to formwork

 Care must be taken when placing & compacting the

concrete to ensure that reinforcement is not displaced.
 If compaction is done using vibration, this should be
continuous during placing of each batch of concrete
until the air expulsion is finished. Over vibration may
result segregation of concrete.

51
 The formwork should be cleaned immediately
after striking & should be stacked for reuse.

 Formwork can be removed after the following

time period under normal conditions when
Ordinary Portland Cement is used.
Component Time
Walls, columns , vertical sides 7 days
of beams
Slabs 14 days
Beams 21 days
52
 Site work in relation to formwork

 Formwork must be removed slowly, as the sudden

removal of the formwork are similar to a shock load
being placed upon the partly hardened concrete.
 When the formwork has been removed it should be
cleaned to remove any concrete adhering to the face
before being reused. If the forms are not required for
immediate reuse, they are stored & stacked to avoid
twisting.
53
 Materials for formwork

Selection of formwork material is based on following

factors.
– Strength of the materials.
– Economic use of the materials.
– Ease of handling working & erection.
– Ability to form the desired shape.
– Facilities for adjustment, leveling & striking.
– Quality of finish required.

54
 Materials for formwork

 Timber
 Plywood
 Steel
 Plastic and rubber
 In some situations concrete, if the formwork is
permanent.

55
 Timber forms
 Timber used for formwork must satisfy the
following requirements:
– It should be durable and treatable.
– It should have sufficient strength characteristics.
– It should be light weight and well seasoned
without deforming.
– It should hold nails well.

56
 Advantages of using timber forms
 Economical for small construction jobs.
 Design is flexible and easy to erect.
 Has good thermal insulation which makes it
useful to be used in colder regions.
 Can easily be made into any shape or size.

57
 Steel formwork
 Mostly used in large construction projects or in
situations where large number of re-uses of the same
shuttering is possible.

 Suitable for circular or curved shaped

structures such as tanks, columns,
chimneys. Etc. & for structures like
sewer tunnel and retaining walls.

58
Advantages of steel formwork over timber forms

 Strong, durable & have longer life.

 Reuses can be assumed to vary from 100 to 120
whereas timber reuse varies from 10 to 12.
 Steel can be installed & dismantled with greater ease &
speed resulting in saving in labour cost.
 Excellent quality of exposed concrete surface obtained,
thus saving the cost of finishing the concrete surface.
 No danger of formwork absorbing water from the
concrete hence minimizing honeycombing.

59
 Aluminium forms
– Aluminum forms are in many respects similar to
those made of steel.
– Due to their lower density, aluminium forms are
lighter than steel forms,& this is their primary
advantage when compared to steel.

60
 Aluminium forms
– As the strength of aluminum in handling, tension and
compression is less than the strength of steel, it is
necessary to use large sections.
– The formwork turns out to be economical if large
numbers of reuses are made in construction.
– Major disadvantage of aluminum forms is that no
changes can be made once the formwork is fabricated.

61
Aluminium formwork system for residential housing block
62
 Plastic formwork
 Used for casting unique shapes and patterns &
a good finish can be obtained requiring
minimum or no surface treatment and repairs.

 Different types of plastic forms are available

like glass reinforced plastic, fiber reinforced
plastic and thermoplastics etc.
63
 Fiberglass - reinforced plastic is the most
common and has several advantages such as

– Allows greater freedom of design.

– Allows the contractor to pour structural and finished
concrete At the same time.
– If carefully handled, a number of reuses are possible
making it highly Economical.
– Lightweight and easily stripped.

64
 Plastic formwork…..

 Design & planning of plastic forms must be carefully

carried out. Also care must take not to damage the plastic
by the heat applied for accelerated curing of the concrete.

65
 Checks before concreting
 Are bolts and wedges secure against loosening due to
vibration?
 Has the right number of ties used and are they in the
right position?
 Are all ties properly tightened?
 Have the stop-ends being properly secured?
 Have all the joints been sealed to stop grout loss?
 Is the formwork correctly aligned and leveled?
 Are all the props plumb? And at the right spacings?
 Are all the props and struts properly tightened up and
locked? 66
 Checks before concreting
 Can the formwork be struck without damaging the concrete?
 Has the release agent being applied? Is it the right one?
 Is the reinforcement correct?
 Has the reinforcement the right cover? Are there enough
spacers?
 Are the forms clean and free from rubbish?
 Is there proper access for concreting and compaction?
 Is all ancillary equipment available, such as vibrators,
lighting, skips and hand tools?
 Is the curing equipment and covers ready?
 Have all the necessary guard rails and toe boards are been
provided?
67
Defects on finished concrete surfaces
Two defects which can occur on the surface of finished
concrete are,
• Blow holes – small holes less than 15 mm in diameter
caused by air being trapped between the concrete and the
formwork
• Uneven colour - caused by the water in the concrete being
absorbed irregularly into the formwork. A mixture of old &
new materials increase this defect.

68
 Mould oils & emulsions
Mould oil can be applied to the inside surface of
the formwork to prevent uneven colouring
problems. Mould oil which incorporates an
emulsifying agent will discourage blow holes
and reduce uneven colouring.

69
 Scaffolding
 Temporary working platforms erected
around the perimeter of a building or a
structure to provide a safe working
place at a convenient height.
 Usually required when the working
height is 1.5m or above the ground
level.
 Includes any working platforms,
ladders and guard rails. Basically there
are two main types of scaffolding.
 Putlog scaffolds.
 Independent scaffolds.

70
 Putlog scaffolds
 Consists of a single row of uprights or standards set
away from the wall at a distance that will
accommodate the required width of the working
platform.
 Standards are joined together with horizontal
members called ledges and are tied to the building
with cross members called putlogs.
 Putlogs are built into the bed joints or perpend as
work proceeds.
 Only suitable for new work in bricks or blocks.

71
72
 Independent scaffolds

 An independent scaffold has two rows of standards

which are tied by cross members called transoms.
 This form of scaffold does not rely on the building for
support & is therefore suitable for use in relation to
framed structures.
 Every scaffold should be securely tied to the building
at intervals of about 3.6m vertically and 6m
horizontally.

73
74
 Working platforms
These are close boarded or plated level surfaces at a
height at which work is being carried out and they
must provide a safe working place of sufficient
strength to support the imposed loads of operatives and
materials. All working platforms above the ground
level must be fitted with a toe board and a guard rail.

75
 Mobile scaffolds
These are also called
mobile tower scaffolds.
They can be assembled
from pre-formed framing
components or from
standard scaffold tubes
and fittings. These are
used mainly for property
maintenance and must not
be moved while occupied
by persons or equipment.

76
77
 Scaffold materials
 Tubular steel
 Tubular aluminium alloy
 Timber

78
 Concrete placing
 The operation of placing ensures the requirement of
strength, impermeability and durability of harden
concrete in the actual structure.
 As far as placing is concerned, the main objective is to
deposit the concrete as close as possible to its final
position so that segregation is avoided and the concrete
is fully compacted.
 The aim of the good concrete placing can be stated as,
is to get the concrete into position at a speed and in a
condition, that allow it to be compacted properly.
By manually
By manually
By using concrete chutes
By using concrete chutes
By use cranes and buckets
By use cranes and buckets
By using concrete pumps
By using concrete pumps
 Compaction
 Once the concrete has been placed , it is ready to be
compacted.
 The purpose of compaction is to get rid of the air voids
that trapped in loose concrete.
 It is important to compact the concrete fully because air
voids reduce the strength of the concrete.
 Air voids increase concrete’s permeability. That in
turns reduces its durability.
 If the concrete is not dense and impermeable, it will not
be watertight.
 Compaction
 Moisture and air are more likely to penetrate to
the reinforcement causing it to rust.
 “Honey combs” may occur due to the air voids.
 To compact concrete you apply energy to it so
that mix becomes more fluid. Air trapped in it
can then rise to the top and escape.
 As a result, the concrete become consolidated
and left with a good dense material.
 Methods of compaction
 Rodding: rodding is a manual technique and are
only suitable for work of foundations and
columns.
 Vibration: is the quickest and best method to
compact concreter.
Porker vibrators are used for this purpose. Porkers
with diameter ranging 25 and 75 mm are readily
available and these are suitable for most
reinforced concrete work.
Internal & external vibration

External Vibration
Use of porker vibrators
Use of porker vibrators
 Use of porker vibrators
 The length of time it takes for a porker
vibrator to compact concrete fully depends on:
– The workability of the concrete: the less workable
the mix, the longer it must be vibrated.
– Bigger vibrators do faster job in compaction.
– The depth of the concrete: thick sections of the
concrete take longer for compaction.
 Proper placement and compaction of
concrete
 To achieve proper placing and compaction following rules
should be kept in mind.
– The concrete should placed in uniform layers not in large heaps
or slopping layers.
– The rate of placing and of compaction should be equal.
– On no account should water ever be added to concrete in setting.
– Each layer should be fully compacted before placing the next
one, and each subsequent layer should be placed whilst the under
lying layer is still plastic so that monolithic construction is
achieved.
– Collision between concrete and formwork or reinforcement
should be avoided.
 Curing
 Care needs to be taken to properly Cure concrete
and to achieve best strength and hardness.
 This happens after concrete has been placed.
 Cement requires a moist, controlled environment
to gain strength and harden fully.
 Cement paste hardened over a time and in around
3 weeks , over 90% of the final strength is
typically reached , though it may continue to
strengthen for decades.
Curing
Curing