Study of Cognition WITH AUDIO Part 2

3: The Emergence of Cognitive Psychology
Shortcomings of S-R Explanations by Behaviorists

 Failure to explain complex behaviour
 Failure to explain language
 Learning without responding
 Learning without reinforcement (Fig 3.1 & 3.2)
 Cognitive maps (Fig 3.3)
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Learning without Responding
 Mice were place in a maze with cheese
 According to Stimulus-Response explanation of
learning, cheese was the stimulus, and mice could
respond to it by walking over to it (to eat it!)
 Since the mice responded to the cheese, according
to behaviourists, learning took place (the mice
learned where the cheese was located in the maze).
Learning without Responding
 Other mice, however, were carted over to where the
cheese was by the cognitive researchers (yes, they
used tiny mouse-sized charts in this experiment!)
instead of the mice being allowed to respond to the
cheese on their own and walking over to it; which,
according to behaviourists, would result in NO
learning.
 However, the results of the study showed that both
sets of mice did learn where the cheese was
located. Specifically, the first time the mice charted
around the maze were allowed to go through the
maze on their own, they went right to the cheese!
Learning without Reinforcement
Figure 3.1: Complex Garden-Style Maze Used in Some Early Studies
of Simple Learning
• One group of mice was
reinforced every time they
reached the goal box,
starting on day 1
• Another group was not
reinforced during the first 10
days but began receiving a
reinforcement in the goal box
on the 11th day
• Last group was never
reinforced
Learning without Reinforcement
Figure 3.2: Results showing Latent Learning had Occurred
Cognitive Maps
Figure 3.3: Maze Used to Study Latent Learning
Mice were first allowed to

freely explore the maze
over a series of trials.
Then certain paths were

blocked as you’ll see on
the next slide..
Cognitive Maps
Figure 3.3: Maze Used to Study Latent Learning
On the first trial of the

mice being put in the
maze when a block was
place at point B  the
rats chose Path 3 over
90% of the time
4: Psychology After Decline of Behaviourism
Information Processing and Cognition
 Information-processing model = brain as the “hardware” and the numerous
cognitive processes as the “software” (dominated for 6 decades)
 Basic assumptions
• Humans are symbol manipulators (encode, store, retrieve, and manipulate
symbolic data)
• Thought is a system of interrelated capacities (ex. attention and
immediate memory as discussed earlier)
• Humans are active and creative information scanners and seekers
• Thinking is a step-by-step process (ex. we can attempt to isolate the
process of encoding information and then the process of retrieving that
same information, and estimate the time each took)
Connectionism and Cognition
• Reminder. Information-processing approach uses the
computer as a model for human cognition
– However, some feel the human-computer analogy has
been taken beyond it’s limit
– Specifically, computers typically have some type of
central processors; however, investigations of the
brain have failed to reveal any central processor
(instead multiple areas of the brain become active)
Connectivism (basic assumptions)

• Processing needed for any given task occurs across the
network distributed throughout the brain simultaneously
and in parallel (not one specific area)
• How are these networks formed? The basic building
block of these networks is a connection between
individual nodes (ex. bone, toy, bark, walks, park, leash)
• Interconnections between nodes is modeled on the way
neurons interact.
https://askabiologist.asu.edu/neuron-anatomy
Figure 4.1
Three Major Areas of the Brain
Figure 4.2
The Major Areas of the Cerebral Cortex
4: The Major Areas of the Cerebral Cortex
• Frontal lobe - voluntary movements, and planning and
executing complex behaviors
– Broca’s area - physical production of speech
• Parietal lobe - regulating (among other things) attention and
immediate working memory
• Occipital lobe - contains the primary visual cortex - area
responsible for vision and recognition of visual patterns
• Temporal lobe - contains the auditory cortex - the brain’s
primary sensory area for audition
– Wernicke’s area - speech comprehension
4: Limbic System
 Beneath the cerebral cortex there is the limbic system.
 It’s a complex system of structures that play an
important role in a variety of cognitive processes.
 It’s integral to learning and remembering new
information as well as the processing of emotion.
 Important structures of the limbic system are the:
 Hippocampus - which is vital for encoding new
information into memory
 Amygdala - which plays a key role in regulating
emotions and in forming emotional memories
The Brain as More than a Metaphor
– Brain-based explanations
• On a micro-level, we know a good deal about the general
mechanics of how neurons function and communicate with
neighboring neurons.
• On a macro-level, we know a good deal of information about
the brain areas important for cognition and which areas are
active during which particular cognitive processes.
• However, a large gap still exists between these two levels.
Ecological Considerations and Current Trends
– Basic and Applied Research
• Basic: mechanisms of thought at simplest components
• Applied: real-world problems
– The problem of meaning
• Removal of meaningful settings by ignoring the processes
whereby we use our everyday experiences to make some type
of broader sense of the world
• Example: memory = our personal histories, they’re critical to our
identity, serve as a critical basis for many important cognitive
processes (such as reminiscing, telling stories, or making
important life decisions)
– Cultural and Individual Differences
• Control, or avoid altogether, are individual difference variables
such as gender and cultural background

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3: The Emergence of Cognitive Psychology

Shortcomings of S-R Explanations by Behaviorists

Mice were first allowed to

Then certain paths were

On the first trial of the

Connectivism (basic assumptions)

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