ISLAMIC and GREEK Contribution

in Science and Technology

Sir Bernard D. Fajardo Jr.

 The universe of the Greeks: from the 6th century BC
The Greek interest in scientific speculation is first seen
in the city of Miletus, in Ionia. Here the philosopher
Thales acquires fame by predicting a solar eclipse in
585 BC. None of his works survive, but his reputation
among Greeks in the following centuries is that of a
man who takes a reasonable or 'scientific' approach to
the mysteries of the natural world.

Thales also discovered the solstice and equinox.

The universe of the Greeks: from the 6th century BC
This reputation seems to be supported by the achievements of
his pupil Anaximander. He is credited with being the first man
to attempt a map of the world, and he offers a bold explanation
of the origin of the universe.
In Anaximander's theory the cosmos results from a struggle
between the opposites of heat and cold. In the vast unlimited
beginning of time the two begin to separate, resulting in a ball
of fire surrounded by mist. The hot ball contracts and hardens,
forming a solid sphere at the centre - the earth.
Anaximander's concept of the beginning of life is equally
astonishing. He argues that humans cannot always have existed
(our infants are too defenceless). The first living creatures, he
believes, develop in water through the action of heat. They
resemble sea urchins. Humans do not evolve from these urchins,
but arrive later in a more welcoming environment.
 
The shape of the world according to Hecataeus has a
geometrical simplicity. It is a flat circle, with a
continuous ocean forming the rim. The circular land
mass is divided into two parts by an almost unbroken
stretch of water linked with the ocean on the west at
the straits of Gibraltar, then running east the length
of the Mediterranean, through the Black Sea and
(after a short land bridge) into the Caspian Sea, which
joins the ocean on the east.
 The Pythagoreans and astronomy: 5th century BC

Followers of Pythagoras, in the 5th century, are the first to

produce an astronomical theory in which a circular earth revolves
on its own axis as well as moving in an orbit. The theory derives
in part from the need to locate the great fire which they believe
fuels the universe.
 The Four Elements: c.450 BC

 The Greek philosopher Empedocles, a

native of Sicily, introduces a theory
which will be accepted in Europe until
the 17th century. He states that all
matter is made up, in differing
proportions, of four elemental
substances - earth, air, fire and water.
 Electricity and magnetism: 5th century BC

 Two natural phenomena, central to the study of physics,

are observed and speculated upon by Greek natural
scientists - probably in the 5th century BC, though
Aristotle gives credit for the first observation of each to
the shadowy figure of Thales.
One such phenomenon is the strange
property of amber. If rubbed with fur it will
attract feathers or bits of straw. Modern
science, in its terms for the forces involved,
acknowledges this Greek experiment with
amber (electron in Greek). The behaviour of
the amber is caused by what we call
electricity, resulting from the transfer of
what are now known as electrons.
The other natural phenomenon, observed in lodestone
rather than amber, also derives its scientific name from
Greek experiments. Lodestone is a naturally occurring
mineral (formed of iron oxide), and it will surprisingly
attract small pieces of iron.

The Greeks find this mineral in a region of Thessaly called

Magnesia. They call it lithos magnetis, the 'stone of
Magnesia'. Thus the magnet is identified and named,
Democritus and the atom: c.420 BC
 He states that all matter is composed of
eternal, indivisible, indestructible and
infinitely small substances which cling
together in different combinations to
form the objects perceptible to us. The
Greek word for indivisible is atomos.
This theory gives birth to the atom.
Alcmaeon is the first scientist known to have practised dissection in his
researches. His aim is not anatomical, for his interest lies in trying to find
the whereabouts of human intelligence. But in the course of his
researches he makes the first scientific discoveries in the field of
anatomy.

The subsequent Greek theory, subscribed to even by Aristotle, is that the

heart is the seat of intelligence. Alcmaeon reasons that since a blow to
the head can affect the mind, in concussion, this must be where reason
lies. In dissecting corpses to pursue this idea, he observes passages
linking the brain with the eyes (the optic nerves) and the back of the
mouth with the ears (Eustachian tubes).
 Aristotle may be wrong about the brain being in the heart, but in general he gives a far
more complete and well observed account of biology than any other Greek philosopher

He inaugurates scientific zoology in his reliance on careful observation. He is

particularly acute in his study of marine life, having much to say on the habits of fishes,
the development of the octopus family, and the nature of whales, dolphins and
porpoises.
He is also a pioneer in attempting a system of classification.
The father of zoology.
 Aristotle's notes on botany are lost, but many of his observations no
doubt survive in the earliest known botanical text - nine books On the
History of Plants written by Aristotle's favourite pupil, Theophrastus.
The Father of Botany who made several study of plants that included in
his book which constitute the first systemization of the botanical world
and were major sources for botanical knowledge during antiquity and
the Middle Ages.
The Hippocratic Oath and the four humours: 4th c. BC
Hippocrates practises and teaches medicine in about 400 BC on the Greek
island of Kos. He will later be regarded as the father of medicine.

This Hippocratic Collection, and in particular the Hippocratic oath which is

part of it, has remained the broad basis of medical principle up to our own
day.

A slightly later Greek text, called On the Nature of Man and attributed to an
author by the name of Polybus, introduces a medical theory which will be
orthodox in Europe for some 2000 years. It states that human beings are
composed of four substances or 'humours', just as inanimate matter is made
up of four elements.
Notable Greek Scientist
The circumference of the earth: calculated c. 220 BC
Eratosthenes, the librarian of the museum at Alexandria,
has more on his mind than just looking after the scrolls. He
is making a map of the stars (he will eventually catalogue
nearly 700), and he is busy with his search for prime
numbers; he does this by an infinitely laborious process
now known as the Sieve of Eratosthenes.

But his most significant project is working out the

circumference of the earth
 Anaxagoras made important contributions
to astronomy. He saw valleys, mountains,
and plains on the moon. He determined
the cause of an eclipse—the moon coming
between the sun and Earth or the Earth
between the sun and the moon depending
on whether it's a lunar or solar eclipse. He
recognized that the planets Jupiter, Saturn,
Venus, Mars, and Mercury move
Hipparchus produced a table of chords, an
early trigonometric table, which leads some to
call him the inventor of trigonometry. He
cataloged 850 stars and accurately calculated
when eclipses, both lunar and solar, would
occur. Hipparchus is credited with inventing the
astrolabe. He discovered the Precession of the
Equinoxes and calculated its 25,771-year cycle.
Ptolemy founded the Ptolemaic System of
geocentric astronomy, which held for 1,400
years. Ptolemy wrote the Almagest, a work on
astronomy that provides us with information
on the work of earlier Greek astronomers. He
drew maps with latitude and longitude and
developed the science of optics. It is possible to
overstate the influence of Ptolemy during much
of the next millennium because he wrote in
Greek, while western scholars knew Latin.
Archimedes discovered the usefulness of the
fulcrum and lever. He began the measurement of
the specific gravity of objects. He is credited with
having invented what is called the screw of
Archimedes for pumping up water, as well as an
engine to throw heavy stones at the enemy. A work
attributed to constitute the first systemization of
the botanical world and were major sources for
botanical knowledge during antiquity and the
Middle Ages.Archimedes called The Sand-Reckoner,
which Copernicus probably knew, contains a
passage discussing Aristarchus' heliocentric theory.
TOP TEN GREEK
INVENTIONS
1. WATER MILL - this invention has been used for centuries all
over the world to provide water for homes and farms. The
ancient Greeks used water mills to perform different activities.

The first water mill to be used in Greece originated from what

was known as Perachora wheel. This was created in the third
century BC and it is credited to the contemporary Greek
engineer Philo of Byzantium.

The first mechanical manual for this water mill written by

Philo, whom many thought he had an Arabian origin.
However, historians have proved that the watermill was an
ancient Greek invention.
2. OLYMPICS
The Olympics is a global phenomenon and part of the greatest sporting
activities of the modern age. The first person to ever take part in an
Olympics activity, a marathon, was a Greek man.
History records indicate that the first ancient Olympic Games can be
traced back to 776 BC in Greece. The games were dedicated to the
Olympian gods and were staged on the plains of Olympia.

3. Alarm clock
The Greek developed an alarm clock to measure time and
ensure that those giving speeches did not take forever especially the
politicians.

They called the clock, which used water, clepsydra meaning

water thief. It was the most accurate clock in the world before the
use of the pendulum checked in.
4. The Steam Engine
Heron, also known as Hero, was an ancient Greek engineer who lived
during the 1st century A.D. and the inventor of the steam engine.

The first one was a toy that many people could not make good use of
it in their daily lives. It was called an aeolipile.

5. Another great Greek invention is the map. Cartography, which is

also known as the art of map-making, was first practised by
Anaximander of Miletus.

He created the first map of the world and was the first to approach
the use of longitude and latitude. They used this technique to
navigate throughout the world.
6. Concept of Democracy
Greece is known as the home of democracy. They are
credited to being the first civilization that gave its citizens
equal opportunities. They also figured out that a government
needed to have the concept of democracy.

7. Theatre first originated in Classical Athens in the 6th

century BC. Ancient theatre involved watching live gladiator
fights and bullfights too.
8. The Odometer
An odometer measures the distance travelled by a vehicle. It has his roots in ancient
Greece. This instrument is widely used today in cars, planes, motorbikes and even
boats.

The first odometer that was used in Greece was mechanical and it slowly evolved with
changing technology. The father of this great invention is Archimedes.

9. Another great invention by Archimedes was this screw that was named after him.
He came up with this invention when he needed to remove water from the hold of a
large ship.
10. Catapult
Last on the list is the Catapult. It dates back to the third century and
was used among other various ancient Greek artillery, such as the
ballista. They were used in the wars of Ancient Greece as a
projectile.

The catapult was invented by Dionysius the Elder of Syracuse in 399

BC. There was a need for a device that assisted in throwing heavy
objects or arrows over a large distance. The Romans improved on
the Greek invention by adding wheels for easy movement.
The word ISLAM has a two-fold meaning:
peace, and submission to God. This
submission requires a fully conscious and
willing effort to submit to the one Almighty
God. One must consciously and
conscientiously give oneself to the service of
Allah. This means to act on what Allah enjoins
all of us to do (in the Qur'an) and what His
beloved Prophet, Muhammad (PBUH)
encouraged us to do in his Sunnah (his lifestyle
and sayings personifying the Qur'an).
Study of nature. Islam stresses to explore
nature. Expect us to know the force behind
nature. Once this is realized the concept of
Creation and Creator become obvious.
Knowledge of nature brings you closure
to Allah
After the birth of Mohammad (SAS) science took a
different course. Revelation of Al-Quran-ul-Hakeem
changed the thinking process of mankind. Islam
brought science from imaginary philosophical
concept to modern experimental and practical stage,
so call Modern Science

Al-Quran initiated a different thinking process

in Muslim Scholars (Muslim
Scientists).Reaching precision and accuracy
was their measurement They developed the
method of investigation (Scientific Method)
Science and Islam are intimately linked. Islam not only
places a high premium on science but positively
encourages the pursuit of science.
Indeed, Islam considers science as an essential
prerequisite for human survival.
According to the famous scientist Albert Einstein;
“Science without religion is lame. Religion without
science is blind.” Francis Bacon, the famous
philosopher, has rightly said that a little knowledge
of science makes you an atheist, but in-depth
study of science makes you a believer in God.
Contribution of Muslims in the
development of science
In 780, Jabir ibn Hayyan, a Muslim chemist who
is considered by many to be the father of
chemistry, introduced the experimental
scientific method for chemistry, as well as
laboratory apparatus such as the alembic, still
and retort, and chemical processes such as
pure distillation, liquefaction, crystallisation,
and filtration.

He also invented more than twenty

types of laboratory apparatus,
leading to the discovery of many
chemical substances.
•Muhammad bin Musa-al-Khwarizmi
founded the algorithm. Without
algorithms we would not have had
computers.
•In 796,the first brass astrolabe was built
by
Muhammad al-Fazari.
•The astrolabe was a complicated
astronomical devise that served many
purposes like telling time, showing the
positions of the stars.
In 810, Abbas Ibn Firnas was born. He was
the first to make glass from stones
(quartz).He made the earliest recorded
attempt at controlled flight, devised means
of manufacturing colorless glass, and
developed a process for cutting rock crystal.
In 820, Amr ibn Bahr al-Jahiz wrote a
number of works on zoology, Arabic
grammar, rhetoric, and lexicography.
His most famous work is the Book of
Animals, in which he first discussed
food chains.
In the 10th century ,the first reference to an
"observation tube" is found in the work of Al-Battani,
and the first exact description of the observation
tube was given by al-Biruni. Though these early
observation tubes did not have lenses, they "enabled
an observer to focus on a part of the sky by
eliminating light interference." These observation
tubes were later adopted in Latin-speaking Europe,
where they may have influenced the development of
the telescope.
•In 925, Kerosene was produced from the
distillation of petroleum and was first described
by al-Razi in Baghdad. He also described the
first kerosene lamps used for heating and
lighting in his Kitab al-Asrar (Book of Secrets).
•The earliest historical record of a reservoir fountain pen dates
back to 953, when Ma'ād alMu'izz, the caliph of Egypt,
demanded a pen which would not stain his hands or clothes, and
was provided with a pen which held ink in a reservoir and
delivered it to the nib via gravity and capillary action, as
recorded by Qadi al-Nu'man al Tamimi (d. 974) in his Kitab al
Majalis wa'l- musayardt.
In 964, Abd -al-Rehman al-Sufi wrote the
Book of Fixed Stars, a star catalogue
thoroughly illustrated with observations
and descriptions of the stars, their
positions, their apparent magnitudes and
their colour.

In 1000, Ammar ibn Ali of Mosul wrote

the Choice of Eye Diseases, a landmark
text on ophthalmology in medieval Islam.
In 1000 Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi
published his 30-volume medical
encyclopedia, the Al-Tasrif, which
remained a standard textbook in
Muslim and European universities
until the 16th century. The book first
introduced many surgical
instruments and a variety of other
instruments. He also invented the
plaster cast cotton dressing, oral
anaesthesia, inhalational anaesthetic,
and anaesthetic sponge.
In 1010, Al-Sijzi invented the Zuraqi,
a unique astrolabe designed for a
heliocentric planetary model in which
the Earth is moving rather than the
sky.
Ibn al-Haitham proved that light travels in straight
lines using the scientific method by carrying out
various experiments with lenses, mirrors, refraction,
and reflection in his Book of Optics (1021). He was
considered the father of optics and pioneer of
scientific method. His Book of Optics correctly
explains light and vision, and introduces
experimental scientific method, laying the
foundations for experimental physics.

Ibn al-Haytham also gave the first clear description

and correct analysis of the camera and pinhole
camera and built the world's first camera obscura.
In 1030, Abu Rayhan al-Biruni stated
that light has a finite speed, and he
was the first to theorize that the speed
of light is much faster than the speed
of sound.

In 1300, when the Black Death bubonic

plague reached al-Andalus, Ibn
Khatima discovered that infectious
diseases are caused by microorganisms
which enter the human body.
In 1577, Taqi al-Din built the Istanbul
observatory of Taqi al-Din, the largest
astronomical observatory in its time
Taqi al-Din was able to achieve this with
his invention of the "observational
clock", a mechanical astronomical clock
that can measure time in seconds.
Muslims have had such a great contribution to science that if it
weren’t for them the Scientific Revolution would not have been
possible.
SHUKRAN! (Thank You)