TOPIC 11

MEASUREMENT AND
DATA PROCESSING AND
ANALYSIS
11.1
UNCERTAINTIES AND ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT
AND RESULTS
ESSENTIAL IDEA
All measurement has a limit of
precision and accuracy, and this
must be taken into account when
evaluating experimental results.
NATURE OF SCIENCE (3.2,3.4)
Making quantitative measurements with
replicates to ensure reliability—precision,
accuracy, systematic, and random errors must
be interpreted through replication.
INTERNATIONAL-MINDEDNESS

As a result of collaboration between seven

international organizations, including IUPAC,
the International Standards Organization (ISO)
published the Guide to the Expression of
Uncertainty in Measurement in 1995. This has
been widely adopted in most countries and
has been translated into several languages.
THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE

Science has been described as a self-

correcting and communal public endeavor.
To what extent do these characteristics also
apply to the other areas of knowledge?
UNDERSTANDING/KEY IDEA
11.1.A

Qualitative data includes all non-

numerical information obtained
from observations not from
measurement.
UNDERSTANDING/KEY IDEA
11.1.B

Quantitative data are obtained from

measurements, and are always
associated with random
errors/uncertainties, determined by
the apparatus, and by human
limitations such as reaction times.
• In the laboratory, no measurement is
exact.
• There are three types of error:
– Human error (not acceptable as
experimental error and should not be
included in the report)
– Random error
– Systematic error
• An uncertainty range applies to any
experimental value.
• Some pieces of apparatus state the
degree of uncertainty.
• If it is not stated, you will have to make
a judgment.
• These are the +/- values after each of
the measurements.
• This is called the absolute uncertainty.
 APPLICATION/SKILLS

Record uncertainties in all

measurements as a range (+/-) to an
appropriate precision.
 Analogue instruments
• An analogue instrument is one that is
not digital.
– Glass thermometers
– Graduated cylinders
– Rulers or meter sticks
– Burettes
• The uncertainty of an analogue scale is
(+/-) half the smallest division.
• An alcohol thermometer with the
smallest division of 1 degree Celsius
would have an uncertainty of (+/- .5).
• A graduated cylinder with a smallest
division of 2 mL would have an
uncertainty of (+/- 1 mL).
• A ruler with 1mm divisions is (+/- .
05cm).
 Digital Instruments
• The uncertainty of a digital instrument is
(+/-) the smallest scale division.
– A centigram balance has an uncertainty
of (+/-) .01g.
– A milligram balance has an uncertainty
of (+/-) .001g.
 Other errors
• There are errors that can occur which
cannot be quantified; however, these
errors should be discussed.
– Reaction time of an experimenter when
timing
– Judging the color change of an end point
– The temperature at a particular time in an
exothermic reaction
– Voltage of an electrochemical cell
 GUIDANCE
Note that the data value must be
recorded to the same precision as
the random error.
 Experimental Errors
• An experimental error in a result is the
difference between the recorded value
and the generally accepted or literature
value.
• Errors are either categorized as random
or systematic.
 APPLICATION/SKILLS

Be able to distinguish between

random errors and systematic
errors.
 RANDOM ERROR (uncertainty)
• An error that has an equal probability of
being too high or too low.
– Can be reduced by repeated measurements
– Examples
• Fluctuations in the balance
• Changes in the surrounding environment such as
temperature variations and air currents
• Misinterpreting the reading
• Using a stopwatch to time a reaction
• Insufficient data
• Judging a color change
 MORE ON RANDOM ERRORS
• The random error is equivalent to the
uncertainty in the measurement.
• When the final uncertainty from random errors
is calculated, it is then compared to the
percent error.
• If the % error is smaller than the %
uncertainty, the difference is due to random
errors.
• If the % error is larger than the % uncertainty,
then random errors alone do not explain the
discrepancy and systematic errors must be
involved.
 APPLICATION/SKILLS

Be able to calculate percentage

error when the experimental result
can be compared with a theoretical
or accepted result.
 % Error

% error = |Theo – Exp| x 100

Theo

This is not to be confused with % yield.

% yield = exp x 100 used in stoichiometry
theo
• If the same person duplicates the
experiment with the same results, the
results are repeatable.
• If several experimenters duplicate the
results, they are reproducible.
• You may be given a set of data and be
asked to determine the absolute uncertainty
from the data.
– Example:
Mass values 0.1234g, 0.1232g, 0.1233g,
0.1234g, 0.1235g, and 0.1236 g
Average = 0.1234g
To find the absolute uncertainty, take the largest
value minus the smallest value and divide by 2.
0.1236 - 0.1232 = .0004/2 = .0002
Answer is 0.1234g +/- .0002g
UNDERSTANDING/KEY IDEA
11.1.D

Experimental design and procedure

usually lead to systematic errors in
measurement, which cause a
deviation in a particular direction.
 APPLICATION/SKILLS

Be able to discuss systematic errors

in all experimental work, their
impact on the results and how they
can be reduced.
 SYSTEMATIC ERROR
• An error caused by the result of poor experimental design
or procedure which causes the result to be skewed in the
same direction every time.
– Fixed by better equipment and better experimental design
– Cannot be reduced by multiple trials
– Examples
• Heat loss in an exothermic reaction
• Reading from the top of the meniscus
• Overshooting the endpoint in a titration
• Mis-calibrated thermometer
• A cloth tape measure that has been stretched out.
– Systematic errors are reduced by careful experimental
design.
 APPLICATION/SKILLS

Be able to discuss ways to reduce

uncertainties in an experiment.
UNDERSTANDING/KEY IDEA
11.1.E

Repeat trials and measurements

will reduce random errors but not
systematic errors.
 APPLICATION/SKILLS

Be able to estimate whether a

particular source of error is likely to
have a major or minor effect on
the final result.
 ERROR DISCUSSION
• All experimental conclusions must take into
account any systematic errors and random
uncertainties.
• You should recognize that if one measurement
has a much greater uncertainty than other
measurements, then this will have the largest
effect on the uncertainty of the final result.
• Be sure to evaluate experimental procedure to
discuss how to reduce systematic errors.
 GUIDANCE
The number of significant figures in a
result is based on the figures given in
the data. When adding or subtracting,
the final answer should be given to
the least number of decimal places.
When multiplying or dividing the final
answer is given to the least number
of significant figures.
 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
• REVIEW
– Adding/subtracting: answer matches least
number of decimal places
– Multiplying/dividing: answer matches least
number of sig figs (least precise value)
• All of your data MUST be recorded with
the correct number of sig figs.
– If your uncertainty is 15.00 +/- .01, then you
may not record the data as 15.1.
 GUIDANCE
SI units should be used throughout
the programme.
 APPLICATION/SKILLS

Know the distinction between

accuracy and precision in
evaluating results.
 ACCURACY
• Accuracy is how close you are to the
true value.
• Accurate measurements have small
systematic errors and give a result
close to the accepted value.
• In other words, the smaller the
systematic error, the greater the
accuracy.
 PRECISION
• Precision refers to the repeatability of a
measurement.
• Precise measurements have small
random errors and are reproducible in
repeated trials.
• In other words, the smaller the random
errors, the greater the precision.
• Precision also indicates how many
significant figures there are in the
measurement.
UNDERSTANDING/KEY IDEA
11.1.C

Propagation of random errors in

data processing shows the impact
of the uncertainties on the final
result.
 APPLICATION/SKILLS

Be able to propagate uncertainties

in processed data, including the
use of percentage uncertainties.
ADDITION OR SUBTRACTION
• When values are added or subtracted
with the same units, the absolute
uncertainties are added together.
• Example:
– Initial temp is 20.1 +/- .1˚C
– Final temp is 27.9 +/- .1˚C
– The change in temp is then 7.8 +/- .2 ˚C
 % UNCERTAINTIES
• In experiments where values are
multiplied or divided, the absolute
uncertainties must be expressed as
percentage uncertainties which can
then be added together and then finally
converted back into absolute
uncertainties.
 % UNCERTAINTIES
• One can see that if you have a mass with
an uncertainty of +/- .001g and a volume
with an uncertainty of +/- .05 mL, then
you cannot add them together to get any
kind of number that makes sense
(.051??).
• You have to convert the uncertainties into
usable numbers.
• These usable numbers are %
uncertainties.
 ERROR PROPAGATION
• Example for density
– Mass is 58.42 +/- .01g Volume is 35.1 +/- .1mL
– Density is mass/volume so find each of the % uncertainties
by dividing the absolute uncertainty by the measured amount
and multiplying by 100.
– Mass: .01/58.42 x 100 = .01711%
– Volume: .1/35.1 x 100 = .2849%
– The sum of the uncertainties is .01711 + .2849=.30201%
– Do the math for density which is 58.42/35.1 which equals
1.66.
– Take the % uncertainty, divide by 100 and multiply by the
answer to find the absolute uncertainty.
– .30201%/100 x 1.66 = .005 Answer = 1.66 +/- .01 g/mL
 ERROR PROPAGATION
• Example for specific heat
– Mass is 130.093 +/- .001g
– Temperature is 37.5˚C +/- .2˚C
– Find the heat if q = mcΔT and c = 4.186 J/g˚C

q = (130.093)(4.186)(37.5) = 20.4 kJ
• First find % uncertainties for mass and temp.
– .001/130.093 x 100 = 7.67x10-4% for mass
– .2/37.5 x 100 = .533% for temp
– (Note – look how much more the temperature reading
affects the error. This is what you have to mention in
your conclusion.)
– Add the %’s: 7.67x10-4% + .533% = .534%
• To convert back into an absolute uncertainty
– .534%/100 x 20.4kJ = .109kJ
– Answer is now 20.4 +/- .1kJ
– Convention says use 1 SF for final uncertainty