OVERVIEW

• The presentation will be in 4 parts:

• Part 1: Bond Directionality and Directional Bond
- Neeraj Ramgoolam
• Part 2: Non-Directional bond – Ajmal Mahomed
• Part 3: Main Properties of Metallic Bonding –
Kush Poorunsing
• Part 4: Calculation involving Young’s Modulus –
Nevin Sunassee
Briefly explain what is meant by
the “directionality” of bonds.
 DIRECTIONALITY OF BONDS

Directionality of bonds refers to the position

at which bonds are set up in compounds. It
deals with the angle and orientation adopted
by electron during bonding so as to achieve
maximum stability and minimum repulsion
between them.
 Describe, with the help of suitable
diagrams, any one primary bond from
each of the following groups.
(i) Directional bonds
(ii) Non- Directional bonds
 TYPES OF BOND DIRECTION

1. Directional bonds

• These are single or multiple bonds which are localised and

occur at fixed angles and along specific axis with respect to
each other.
• They may either be primary bonds or secondary bonds.
EXAMPLE OF DIRECTIONAL BONDS
• Covalent bonds take place between atoms with small
differences in electronegativity. Covalent bonds are
most commonly formed when atoms share their outer
s and p electrons with the other atom so that each
atom attains the noble-gas electron configuration.
However these bonds occur in direction of highest
orbital overlap and at certain angle, along a particular
axis in order for them to stable. Thus, since electron
sharing takes place at a particular position, covalent
bonds are said to be highly directional.
EXAMPLE OF DIRECTIONAL BONDS
EXAMPLE OF DIRECTIONAL BONDS

H2 O

column IVA
H2 F2
C(diamond)
H He
2.1
Si C - Cl 2
Li Be C O F Ne
1.0 1.5 2.5 2.0 4.0 -
Na Mg Si Cl Ar
0.9 1.2 1.8 3.0 -
K Ca Ti Cr Fe Ni Zn Ga Ge As Br Kr
0.8 1.0 1.5 1.6 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.8 -
Rb Sr Sn I Xe
0.8 1.0 1.8 2.5 -
Cs Ba Pb At Rn
0.7 0.9 1.8 2.2 -
Fr Ra
0.7 0.9 GaAs
 TYPES OF BOND DIRECTION

2. Non-directional bonds

• Bonding is equally probable at all angles. The bond is not

localised to a specific direction.
EXAMPLE OF NON-DIRECTIONAL BONDS
• Ionic bonds can be formed between highly electropositive
(metallic) elements and highly electronegative (non-
metallic) elements. In the ionisation process electrons are
transferred from atoms of the electropositive element to
atoms of the electronegative elements producing
positively charged cations and negatively charged anions
and both of them have a stable electronic configuration.
The ionic bond is due to the electrostatic force of
attraction of the oppositely charged ions. Since the
electron transfer can occur at any point, ionic bonds are
said to be non-directional.
 EXAMPLE OF IONIC BOND: SODIUM
CHLORIDE
• It is formed when the sodium and chlorine
atoms are combined. The sodium atoms each
lose an electron forming Na+ ions while the
chlorine atoms each gain one electron to give
Cl- ions. These oppositely charged ions attract
each other due to strong electrostatic force of
attraction to form NaCl.
EXAMPLE OF NON-DIRECTIONAL BONDS

Na (metal) Cl (nonmetal)
unstable unstable
electron

Na (cation)
+ - Cl (anion)
stable Coulombic stable
Attraction
EXAMPLE OF NON-DIRECTIONAL BONDS
EXAMPLE OF NON-DIRECTIONAL BONDS

NaCl
MgO
H He
2.1 CaF 2 -
Li Be O F Ne
1.0 1.5 Cs Cl 3.5 4.0 -
Na Mg Cl Ar
0.9 1.2 3.0 -
K Ca Ti Cr Fe Ni Zn As Br Kr
0.8 1.0 1.5 1.6 1.8 1.8 1.8 2.0 2.8 -
Rb Sr I Xe
0.8 1.0 2.5 -
Cs Ba At Rn
0.7 0.9 2.2 -
Fr Ra
0.7 0.9

Electronegativity decreases Electronegativity increases

Discuss the main properties of metallic bonds.
 INTRODUCTION

• A metal is a lattice of positive metal 'ions' in a

'sea' of delocalised electrons.
• Metallic bonding refers to the interaction
between the delocalised electrons and the
metal nuclei.
• The physical properties of metals are the
result of the delocalisation of the electrons
involved in metallic bonding.
 THE PROPERTIES

• The physical properties of solid metals are:

– Conduction of heat and electricity
– generally high melting and boiling points
– strong
– malleable (can be hammered or pressed out of
shape without breaking)
– ductile (able to be drawn into a wire)
– metallic lustre
– opaque (reflect light)
 CONDUCTIVITY
• Solid and liquid metals conduct
heat and electricity.
• The delocalised electrons are
free to move in the solid lattice.
These mobile electrons can act
as charge carriers in the
conduction of electricity or as
energy conductors in the
conduction of heat.
 MELTING POINT
• In general, metals have high melting and boiling
points because of the strength of the metallic bond.
• The strength of the metallic bond depends on the
– number of electrons in the delocalised 'sea' of electrons.
(More delocalised electrons results in a stronger bond and
a higher melting point.)
– packing arrangement of the metal atoms.
(The more closely packed the atoms are the stronger the
bond is and the higher the melting point.)
 MELTING POINT
• Group I metals have relatively low melting points
compared to other metals because they:
– only have 1 electron to contribute to the delocalised 'sea'
of electrons
– are not forming as many metallic bonds as other metals
because Group I atoms are inefficiently packed
– have large atomic radii so the delocalised electrons are
further away from the nucleus resulting in a weaker
metallic bond
 MALLEABILITY AND DUCTILITY
• Metals are described as malleable (can be beaten into sheets) and ductile
(can be pulled out into wires). This is because of the ability of the atoms to
roll over each other into new positions without breaking the metallic
bond.
• If a small stress is put onto the metal, the layers of atoms will start to roll
over each other. If the stress is released again, they will fall back to their
original positions. Under these circumstances, the metal is said to be
elastic.

• If a larger stress is put on, the atoms roll over each other into a new
position, and the metal is permanently changed.
PICTURE ILLUSTRATING DUCTILITY
 HARDNESS
• The rolling of layers of atoms over each other is
hindered by grain boundaries because the rows of
atoms don't line up properly. It follows that the more
grain boundaries there are (the smaller the individual
crystal grains), the harder the metal becomes.
• Offsetting this, because the grain boundaries are areas
where the atoms aren't in such good contact with each
other, metals tend to fracture at grain boundaries.
Increasing the number of grain boundaries not only
makes the metal harder, but also makes it more brittle.
PICTURE ILLUSTRATING HARDNESS
 OPTICAL PROPERTIES
• Metals typically have a shiny, metallic lustre.
• Photons of light do not penetrate very far into
the surface of a metal and are typically
reflected, or bounced off, the metallic surface.
PICTURE ILLUSTRATING METAL LUSTRE
 A 50 kN load is applied to a steel bar of cross
sectional area 10cm2. This steel is found to
corrode very rapidly and it is proposed to
replace it by an aluminium bar. Determine the
cross sectional area of the aluminium bar so
that the elastic strain is the same as in the
steel when the same load is applied.
Young’s modulus for steel 210 GN/m2 and
Young’s modulus for aluminium 70.3 GN/m2
 WHY DOES STEEL CORRODE VERY RAPIDLY
COMPARED TO ALUMINIUM?

• Steel is an alloy that consists mostly of iron and has a

carbon content between 0.2% and 2.1% by weight,
depending on the grade. On exposure to air and
water, the iron in steel rapidly forms an oxide which
changes its composition from FeO to Fe2O3, to Fe3O4,
and the corrosion continues - eventually through the
iron.
• In the case of aluminium, the oxide formed on
exposure to air is a corrosion resistant oxide and
under normal conditions, oxidation stops or takes
place very slowly.
 OBJECTIVE AND DATA FOR STEEL

• Objective: To determine the cross sectional area of the

aluminium bar so that the elastic strain is the same as
in the steel when the same load is applied.

• The data given are as follows:

• Steel
– Load: 50kN
– Area: 10cm2
– Young’s modulus: 210 GN/m2
 DATA FOR ALUMINIUM
• Aluminium
– Load: Same load, that is 50kN
– Same elastic strain
– Young’s modulus: 70.3 GN/m2
 FORMULA
• The formula to be used is:

where
E is the Young's modulus (modulus of elasticity)
F is the force applied to the object;
A is the original cross-sectional area through which the force is applied;
e is the amount by which the length of the object changes;
L is the original length of the object.
 WORKING OUT THE PROBLEM
• By replacing the given data in the formula, we
get:

∴
 WORKING OUT THE PROBLEM

• Now that the strain has been obtained, the

cross-sectional area for aluminium under the
same load(50kN) can be calculated using the
following information:
• Load: 50kN
• Elastic Strain:
• Young’s Modulus: 70.3 GN/m2
WORKING OUT THE PROBLEM