DENTAL MATERIALS The basic building block of all restorative dental materials is the atom. Atoms combine various ways via bonding; the bonding between atoms is a key feature of what makes dental materials Periodic Table Bonds between Atoms (Primary) Ionic bonds are formed when an electron from one element is given completely to another in return for forming the bond.
Covalent bonds form
when atoms share electrons to form a bond.
Metallic bonds result
when electrons are shared among many atoms. Bonds between Atoms (Secondary) In contrast with primary bonds, secondary bonds do not share electrons. 1. van der Waals Forces These forces of attraction arise from *dipole attractions. In the case of polar molecules, dipoles are induced by an unequal sharing of electrons. *a pair of equal and oppositely charged or magnetized poles separated by a distance. Bonds between Atoms (Secondary) 2. Hydrogen Bond The hydrogen bond is a special case of dipole attraction of polar compounds. It can be understood by studying a water molecule (Fig.). Attached to the oxygen atom are two hydrogen atoms. These bonds are covalent. Types of Bonding in dentistry (e.g) Physical bonding Two wet glass slabs Denture base to oral issue Mechanical bonding Amalgam restoration Chemical bonding GIC to tooth Zinc Polycarboxylate cement Micro-mechanical bonding Composite restoration Atomic arrangement and types: 1. Crystalline Structure 2. Non Crystalline structure 1. CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURE There are 14 possible lattice types. The type of space lattice is defined by the length of each of three unit cell edges (called the axes) and the angles between the edges. The simplest and most regular lattice is a cubic, it is characterized by axes that are all of equal length and meet at 90-degree angles, representing the smallest repetitive volume of a crystal, which is called a unit cell. Most metals used in dentistry belong to the cubic system. For example, iron at room temperature has an atom at each corner of the cube and another atom at the body center of the cube (Fig B). This crystal form is called a body centered cubic cell (bcc). Copper, on the other hand, has additional atoms at the center of each face of the unit cell but none at the center of the cube. This form is called a face-centered cubic cell. (fcc) (Figure, C). The hexagonal close-packed arrangement (Figure 2-8, G) observed in titanium, zinc, and zirconium has become an important crystalline structure in dentistry. All metallic-based dental materials are crystalline. Some pure ceramics, such as alumina and zirconia core materials, are entirely crystalline. Non Crystalline Structure Glass is a typical non-crystalline solid of SiO2 because its atoms tend to be arranged in non- repeating units (Figure 2-9). The ordered arrangement of the glass is more or less locally interspersed with a considerable number of disordered units. They do not have a definite melting temperature but rather gradually soften as the temperature is raised. The temperature at which there is an abrupt increase in the thermal expansion coefficient, indicating increased molecular mobility, is called the glass transition temperature (Tg) Crystalline / Non Crystalline Adhesion Adhesion may be defined simply as an interaction between two materials at an interface where they are in contact. The nature of the interaction is such that their separation is prevented. The property of adhesion is recognized as being of major importance for filling materials, luting materials and fissure sealants. ADHESION AND BONDING When the molecules of one substrate adhere or are attracted to molecules of the other substrate, the force of attraction is called adhesion when unlike molecules are attracted and cohesion when the molecules involved are of the same kind. The material that is used to cause bonding is known as the adhesive and the material to which it is applied is called the adherend. Materials which are capable of bonding two surfaces together are called adhesives whilst the material to which the adhesive is applied is termed the adherend. Bonding may be achieved by one of two mechanisms – mechanical attachment or chemical adhesion. In mechanical attachment the adhesive simply engages in undercuts in the adherend surface When the surface irregularities responsible for bonding have dimensions of only a few micrometres the process is known as micromechanical attachment. This should be distinguished from macromechanical attachment which forms the basis of retention for many filling materials, using undercut cavities. In the case of chemical adhesion the adhesive has a chemical affinity for the adherend surface. SURFACE AND SURFACE ENERGY A surface is defined as the outmost layer of an object. We know that solids or liquids are made up of a finite number of atoms or molecules bonded by primary and/or secondary bonds. This means that their surface is populated by atoms or molecules that are ready to attract other atoms or molecules approaching the surface. Inside the lattice, all the atoms are equally attracted to each other. The interatomic distance for atom “A” has a balanced array of neighbors surrounding it and the energy is minimal. At the surface of the lattice, atom “B” is not equally attracted in all directions and the energy is greater. This energy quantifies the work needed to disrupt intermolecular bonds resulting a new surface. Thus, it is called the surface energy. The energy on the surface per unit area is referred to as the surface energy (in mJ/m ) or surface tension. Eg. Falling liquid drops form spherical shapes, which have the smallest surface area of all known shapes, and they maintain the state of lowest energy. WETTABILITY Whichever mechanism of bonding is utilized the adhesive must be capable of wetting the adherend surface. Wettability is a measure of the affinity of a liquid for a solid as indicated by spreading of a drop. When an impurity-free polished glass plate is placed on top of another similar plate and pressed together, they exhibit no tendency to adhere. If a drop of water is introduced between the same two glass plates before they are pressed together, considerable difficulty is encountered in separating the two plates Contact angle The ability of an adhesive to wet an adherend surface is evaluated by measuring the contact angle which is formed when a drop of adhesive is applied to the surface. If a low contact angle occurs, as in the left of, the solid is wetted readily by the liquid (hydrophilic if the liquid is water). If a contact angle is greater than 90°, as in the right of, poor wetting occurs (hydrophobic if the liquid is water). When gypsum products are mixed with water to pour dental models in various types of impressions, wetting must occur between gypsum and the impression to ensure good surface quality of the gypsum model. To improve the wettability of the set impression material by a gypsum-water mixture, the operator usually sprays a surfactant (also called debubblizer). The most direct approach by the manufacturer is to incorporate a wetting agent (also known as a surfactant)