PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
FOR SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

Prepared by:
Ms. Mary Grace G. Maninantan
Learning Competencies
By the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:

1. Presents written review of related literature

2. Chooses appropriate quantitative research design
3. Describes sampling procedure and sample
Review of Related Literature
 A literature review is an academic text that provides an
overview of a particular topic.
 It helps identify what is known and not known about a
certain subject of study.
 It involves the use of higher-order thinking skills, such as
review, evaluation, and synthesis of several scholarly
works. These scholarly works include journal articles,
professional books, online sources, and specialized
references.
 Literature Review
 It is an integral part of any research paper and serves several functions.

First It establishes the relevance of the study.

Second It further helps in establishing the research gap that the study intends to fill.

Third It provides important information about the topic and the concepts related to it.

Fourth It presents the contradictions between and among previous literature

It justifies the research methodology, as its effectiveness may be determined by a survey of

Fifth
previous studies relevant to the research.

Sixth It presents and discusses the theoretical and conceptual frameworks which are the
backbone of the study.
 Writing the Literature Review
 Involves three (3) stages: searching for works relevant to the study, analyzing these
scholarly works, and drafting the literature review

Literature Search

It is the stage in which the researcher systematically looks for and

selects reference materials relevant to the study.

It is necessary to survey all possible sources of references, especially

those that were written by the leading scholars in the field of study.

Take note that the quality of paper is influenced by the quality of

references you use.
Points to remember in conducting a Literature
Search:
 1. Identify the topics and concepts that you need to incorporate into your paper. Your research title and
specific research questions and objectives can be a good source of these topics or concepts.
 2. Specify the type of sources that you will use. Will they be mainly articles or a combination of articles,
books and other periodicals?
 3. Search for scholarly work by visiting your school library or popular online databases. These include
the following:
 As much as possible, include only the references published in reputable journals
and publishers and those written by experts who specialize in your selected
topic. Include also the landmark studies, articles, reports, or books related to
your topic.
 4. Use relevant key words to find your desired sources.
Example topic: Effects of Online Games on the Digital Literacy of Teenagers
Key words: Online games, Digital Literacy
 5. When conducting literature search online, use links that are considered
reliable. These are the sites that end in .gov, .mil, and .edu, for example. Sites
that end in .com and .org are also acceptable as long as they are associated with
recognized companies and organizations. Some of these sites are
www.un.org (United Nations), www.unesco.org (UNESCO),
www.edition.cnn.com (Cable News Network), and www.rd.com (Reader’s
Digest)
 6. You may also utilize Boolean searching strategies in conducting your
literature search online.
Boolean Searching Strategies
 Use AND if you want to search for profiles or texts that contain the terms
connected by AND (e.g., university AND colleges).
 Use OR if you want to search for profiles or texts that contain either of the terms
connected by OR (e.g., university OR colleges)
 Use NOT if you want to exclude a particular term in your search (e.g., university
NOT colleges).
 Use quotation marks if you want to search for a specific phrase (e.g., “Top
Philippine universities”).
Evaluation and Analysis of the Selected Works
 This stage is performed once you have selected all your potential references. In this stage, you
further screen the selected references for reliability and usefulness. This stage also further ensures
that the materials you will use in your paper are only those that are closely related to your research
topic.

1. Obtain an overview of the reference you selected. This will help you determine the relevance of its
content to your research. For example, for research articles, you may perform a brief survey by reading
the abstract of each article; for books, you may look into the preface to see their summary and find out
the author’s intention in writing it.

2. When evaluating research articles, find out if they are published by a reputable publisher/ journal and
written by legitimate scholars in your field of study. You may refer to the Thompson Reuters Master
Journal list (http://ip-science.thomsonreuters.com/mjl/) or Scopus Source List (
https://www.elsevier.com/solutions/scopus/content) for the list of reputable research journals.

3. As much as possible, refrain from using references published by predatory journals or publishers as they
do not guarantee quality. Predatory publishers and journals are those that publish research papers for
financial gain and do not follow the ethics in producing an academic work.
 4. Refrain from using materials that do not directly explain the concepts related to your
study.
 5. As much as possible, use references that have been published within the last five years,
unless you are writing a historical paper, which may entail the use of sources from earlier
periods of time.
 6. Group the references according to the categories you used during your literature search.
You may use online tools (e.g. Zotero) in tagging (or labeling) and classifying these
references.
 7. If a material appears to be relevant to your topic, current (i.e, published in the last five
years), and reliable, continue reading its content. However, if the material does not meet
these standards, exclude it from your literature review.
 8. Carefully read each of the materials you will incorporate into your literature review. Note
down the key information in these materials. Determine which information you can include
in your literature review.
 9. Use a concept map if you want to see the relationship, similarities, and differences among
the materials you have read.
Drafting the Literature Review
 1. One strategy that you may use in writing your literature review is to get a model paper that
deals with a topic similar to yours. You may pattern the sequence of your ideas on your model
paper:
 2. in the introductory portion, provide an overview of what can be found in your literature
review.
 3. Divide the literature review into two subsections: (a) the conceptual literature section
which explains concepts relevant to your study, and (b) the related studies section which
presents studies similar to your own.
 4. when writing the conceptual literature, you may use concepts from the title of the reference
or the specific questions and objectives of your research. For the related studies, you may
arrange them in three ways: by theme (i.e similar studies are grouped together), by
chronology (i.e, from the earliest to the latest), or by type (foreign or local studies). These
three ways of writing the related studies section depend on the objectives and features of your
review
a. Thematic arrangement- if your intention is to make the readers focus on how your study is
similar to or different from the previous ones
b. Chronological arrangement- if you want to emphasize the development and progress in a
specific field of study
c. Typological arrangement- if there are sufficient studies conducted locally about the topic of
your research
 5. At the end of the related studies section, write a synthesis that shows the research gap
 6. Define important terms in your study. Aside from the informal and formal ways, definitions
can be made operationally or conceptually. An operational definition is a type of definition
specifically made for your study, while a conceptual definition is the definition of a term which
is generally used in a specific discipline. This definition is oftentimes used by scholars.
Citations are often required when using conceptual definitions.
 7. If you cannot explain some concepts in detail due to space constraints, you may direct the
readers to a particularly scholarly work that discusses the said topic more extensively. This is
done by using the following citation format: (see author, year).
 8. Use cohesive devices throughout the literature review to link one idea to another. Examples of cohesive
devices are transitional devices, conjunctions, pronouns, and repetition of terms of referencing ideas
 9. Use headings and subheadings. This will help you organize the studies and references you have
gathered. This will also aid the reader in making sense of the ideas and related studies to your research.
 10. Be sure to apply the principle of cohesiveness when writing your literature review. This means that
each paragraph should focus only on one main idea, and these ideas should be linked to one another.
 11. Use direct quotation sparingly. Direct quotation is typically used when stating laws and principles and
when explicitly showing an author’s intention. You can also direct quotation if you think that it is best to
present the ideas of certain historical figures and experts in your field.
 12. Write a brief synthesis at the end of the literature review to show how these scholarly works shape
your paper, and to further reinforce the research gap that these studies have yet to fill.
 13. Survey all possible sources before claiming that no studies have been conducted on a particular topic
or saying that your topic is underexplored.
 14. Cite your sources. Use appropriate documentation and citation style in your literature review. Three of
the most popularly used documentation styles are from American Psychological Association (APA style,
the Modern Language Association (MLA) style, and the Chicago Manual of Style (CMOS). The
documentation and citation style you will use depends on the subject matter of your research. Be consistent
in using it when documenting sources and writing your literature review. Documentation style will be
discussed in detail later in the lesson.
Citing Sources
Style Guide Disciplines

APA Business, economics, education, hotel and restaurant management,

psychology, and other fields under social sciences

MLA English and some fields in the humanities and the arts

Chicago Various disciplines, but most popularly used in history and music
American Psychological Association (APA)
Style
 This phenomenon was attributed by some scholars to high-achieving students’ tendency to be
realistic (Falchikov & Boud, 1989)

NOTE: When incorporating direct quotations in the text, the page number of the source where the
direct statement was found must also be cited, e.g (Falchicov & Boud, 1989, p.415).

Modern Language Association

(MLA) Style
 This phenomenon was attributed by some scholars to high-achieving students’ tendency to be
realistic (Falchikov and Boud, 415)
 Chicago Manual of Style (CMOS)
 This phenomenon was attributed by some scholars to high-achieving students’ tendency to be
realistic (Falchikov and Boud 1989, 415).
 The second form of citation is reference citation, which refers to the complete bibliographic
information of the reference used. Reference citation usually appears at the end of the paper. The
compilation of these references is known as the reference list.

EXAMPLES
APA Style (6th Edition)

Falchikov, N. & Boud, D. (1989). Student self assessment in higher education: A meta-analysis.
Review of Educational Research, 59 (4), 395-430.
MLA Style (8th Edition)
Falchikov, Nancy, and David Boud. “Student Self-Assessment in Higher Education: A Meta-Analysis.” Review
of Educational Research, vol.59 no. 4, 1989, pp. 395-430.

CMOS Style (16th Edition)

Falchikov, Nancy and David Boud. “Student Self-assessment in Higher Education: A Meta-analysis. “ Review
of Educational Research, 59 no. 4 (1989): 395-430.
“
QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH DESIGNS
”
Classified into five general kinds: descriptive, correlational, ex post facto, quasi-experimental,
and experimental.
 Kind Goal Variables And Experimental Data Collection Sample Title
Manipulation Techniques (S)

Descriptive To observe and report on a Variables are measured as they Questionnaire Assessing Nurses’ Attitudes Toward
certain phenomenon occurred Death and Caring for Dying
Experimental manipulation is not Observation Patients in a Comprehensive
used. Cancer Center

(Lange, M., Thom, B., Kline, N.E,

2008)

Correlational To determine the nature of Variables are measured as they Questionnaire The Relationship Between Service
the relationship between occur. Quality and Customer Satisfaction
variables without looking Experimental manipulation is not Test in the Telecommunication Industry:
into the cause used. Evidence from Nigeria
Observation
(Ojo, O., 2010)

Quasi-experimental To establish cause-and-
effect relationships
Experimental manipulation may
have limited use.
Intact (i.e., established) groups are
used; there is no random assignment
of individual subjects to the
treatment and control groups
Tests The impact of smoking Bans on
Smoking and Consumer Behavior:
Quasi-experimental Evidence from
Switzerland
(Boes, S., Marti, J., Maclean, J.C.,
2014)
 Kind Goal Variables And
Experimental
Manipulation
Ex Post facto To infer the causes of a Experimental manipulation is
phenomenon which have not used.
already occurred
Groups exposed to the
presumed cause are
compared to those who were
not exposed to it.
Experimental To establish cause-and-effect Experimental manipulation is
relationships not used.
Intact groups are not used;
individual subjects are
randomly assigned to the
treatment and control groups.
The random assignment of
individual subjects provides
more conclusiveness as to the
causal relationships between
the variables.
Data Collection Sample Title
Techniques (S)
Questionnaire Comparison of Personal,
Social and Academic
Variables Related to
University Drop-out Rate and
Persistence
(Bernardo, A., et al., 2016)
Tests Reading Electronic Books as
a Support for Vocabulary,
Story Comprehension, and
Word Reading in
Kindergarten and First Grade
(Korat, 2010)
 Samples and Sampling Methods
Sampling refers to the process of systematically selecting individuals,
units, or groups to be analyzed during the conduct of study. The
reason for selecting the samples is to get information about the
target population. Thus, it is goal in research to make sure that the
samples selected represent the target population. Being able to do
this will increase the generalizability of your findings.

Generalizability refers to the extent your findings can be

applied in other contexts.
Heuristics refers to the rule of thumb for the sample size used
in the study.

Research Design Number of Participants

Survey 800
Correlational 100 to 200
Ex post facto 30+
Experimental 30 or more

Suggested sample sizes in different research designs

(Lunenburg and Irby, 2008)
Literature Review
You may want to read studies similar to yours and check the sample size that they used. These studies can
serve as a reference in proving the validity of the sample size that you plan to use.

Formulas
The formula below by the National Education Association in the Unites States can be used to compute for
the needed sample size. Each variable in the formula has a set value you can use for the computation.

Where
s= x2 NP (1- P) s = required sample size
x2 = table value of chi-square for 1 degree of freedom at the
desired confidence level (1.96) 2
d 2 (N- 1) +
x   p (1-P)
2
N = population size

P = population proportion (0.5)

d = the degree of accuracy expressed as a proportion (.05)

Let us use this formula in obtaining the ideal sample size for a
given population. For instance, the sample size for a population of
105 people is computed as follows:

s= (1.96)² (105) (0.50) (1- 0.50)

[(.05)² (105-1)] + [(1.96)² (0.50) (1 – 0.50)]
= (3. 8416) (105) (/0.50) (0.50)
[(0.0025) (104)] + [(3.8416) (0.50) (0.50)
= 100.842
0.26 + 0.9604
= 100.842 = 82.63 (or sample size of 83 participants)
1. 2204
Based on the computation above, the ideal size for a population of 105 people
is 83.
Power Analysis. Among the four strategies, it is considered the most precise. As
suggested by its name, this strategy is founded on the principle of statistical power.

Statistical power refers to the probability of rejecting a false null hypothesis, thus
suggesting that there is, indeed, a relationship between the independent and
dependent variables. Ideally, a study possesses a s statistical power of 80%. Power
analysis is then used to determine the sample size sufficient for measuring the effect
size of a treatment.

Effect size refers to the degree of difference between the control group and treatment
groups. If statistical power indicates the existence of a relationship between the
independent and dependent variables, the effect size indicates the extent of the
relationship between these two variables. The higher the effect size, the greater the
difference between the control and treatment groups.
 Types of Random Sampling in
Quantitative Research

The major types of random sampling for quantitative research are simple random sampling,
stratified random sampling, cluster sampling, and systematic sampling.
Simple Random Sampling

 All individuals in a given population have an equal chance of

being selected. It is considered the best way to obtain a
representative sample. As illustrated on the opposite column,
the four participants in the study are randomly chosen from
all of the 12 members of the population. The population is not
divided into groups or specific classes as the basis of the
selection.
 One technique that you can use in simple random sampling is
the fish bowl technique wherein you select participants by
drawing out names from a transparent glass bowl.
 Stratified Sampling
 It is similar to simple random sampling in that the members
of the population can all be selected by chance. However, in
stratified sampling, the population is divided into subgroups
(or strata). The samples are then selected from these
subgroups, and not from the population as a whole.
 This is best used when the characteristics of the subgroups
may influence the variables being measured. This means
that the data obtained can be also grouped into different
classes, creating more nuances in the analysis.
Cluster Sampling
 Involves the grouping of the population into subgroups or clusters.
However , these clusters are not created based on specific
characteristics or traits; thus, they are heterogenous. As seen in the
figure, specific participants are not selected from each
subgroup/cluster. Instead two whole subgroups or clusters are
selected to meet the planned sample size of four participants.
 One problem with using this type of random sampling is the
possible inadequate representation of each type of characteristic
among the population. To overcome inadequacy, a large number of
samples should be used from different subgroups or clusters.
 Systematic Sampling

 The participants are selected from a list based on their order in the population or on a predetermined interval.
This interval is obtained by dividing the population size by the sample size of the study.
 For example, you need a sample size of four participants from a population of 12 individuals. Using a
systematic sampling, you may decide to select every third person in the list. Take note that you are not
required to begin with selecting person #3. you may begin with any of the first three individuals (person 1, 2
or 3). Succeeding samples, however, should be consistently selected using the specified nth value. (i.e, every
third)
Thank you and God bless!
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