CONTAMINATION OF

MYCOTOXIN
Anugerah Dany P, S.TP., MP., M.Sc

Department of Food Technology

Faculty of Engineering
University of Pembangunan Nasional “Veteran” East Java
 Conditions to Encourage
Fungal Growth

• Relative humidity over 70%.

• Temperatures over 30 degrees Celsius for
a period of a few days to a week.
• Stress to the affected plant, such as
drought, flood, or insect infestation.
• High moisture content of crop (20% or
higher).
MYCOTOXIN?
MYCOTOXIN: Definition & Features
• Mycotoxins are toxic compounds produced by fungi. They
are secondary metabolites of fungi which are associated with
certain disorders in animals and human beings.
• Toxic substances produced by fungi (molds) growing on
crops/grains in the field or storage.
• Secondary metabolites (chemicals) of fungus that produce
toxic results in another organism.
• Lack of visible appearance of fungus does not negate
presence of mycotoxins. Toxins can remain in the organism
after fungus has been removed.
• Can be heat stable, not destroyed by canning or other
processes.
Categories of Secondary metabolites
• Antibiotics: Penicillin, Cyclosporin, Ampicillin
• Mycotoxins: Aflatoxins, Ochratoxins, Citrinin
1 metabolite
st
 MYCOTOXINS IN FOOD
• Aflatoxins
• Fumonisins
• Deoxynivalenol / nivalenol (DON)
• Zearalenone
• Ochratoxin
AFLATOXINS
FUMONISINS
DEOXYNIVALENOL / NIVALENOL
(DON)
SIMPLIFIED DIAGRAM THE ROUTE OF MYCOTOXINS CONTAMINATION PLANT CROP
Fungal growth & toxin production
Insect bird & rodent damage
Agricultural biocides
Microbial interaction HARVEST
Intrinsic factors
Extrinsic factors
Environmental condition
IN FOOD (Sardjono,2003)

STORAGE
Fungal growth & toxin production

Other component
plant origin PROCESSING
spices, herbs (resistant?)

Feed for animals

Processed foods Meat & milk

Waste / by products
HUMAN
 Mycotoxin Effects on Animals
• Feed refusal.
• Impaired animal health, resulting in reduced
production of eggs, milk, weight gain, etc.
• Metabolites are passed through the milk in
cheese, dry milk, and
yogurt.
• Disease.
• Death in animals.

http://www.thecattlesite.com/articles/contents/09-02-24Mytotoxin.gif
Quick Animal Anatomy Review

http://www.mycotoxins.info/myco_info/animals/poultry/Poster_Mycotoxicoses_poultry.jpg
Quick Animal Anatomy Review

http://www.mycotoxins.info/myco_info/animals/pigs/Poster_Mycotoxicoses_pig.jpg
Quick Animal Anatomy Review

http://www.mycotoxins.info/myco_info/animals/horse/Poster_Mycotoxicoses_horses.jpg
 KEBERADAAN KE LIMA
MIKOTOKSIN PADA PANGAN
PENGARUH YG
MIKOTOKSIN KOMODITI JAMUR PENGHASIL DITIMBULKAN
Aflatoksin Jagung, kacang, Aspergillus flavus Karsinogenik,
(B1, B2, G1, G2) bijian lain dan hasil Aspergillus embriotoksik
olahnya parasiticus
Aflatoksin M1 Pakan yg Karsinogenik
dan derevatnya Susu mengandung AFB
Fumonisins Jagung, gandum Fusarium Karsinogenik
( B1,B2 ) dan beberapa bijian moniliforme Accut
lain
Jagung, gandum, Fusarium Karsinogenik
Zearalenone barley graminearum System
F. Culmorum reproduksi
F. crookwellense
Deoxynivalenol Jagung, gamdum,
Nivalenol barley Idem zearalenone idem
Ochratoxin A Kopi, coklat, Aspergillus
(OTA) gandum ochraceus karsinogenik
Penicillium
vericosum
 Mycotoxins are highly potent toxins produced by certain fungi,
and can contaminate numerous commodities

• FAO estimates that potentially toxigenic fungi are present in 25%

of global crops
• Mycotoxins are acutely & chronically toxic, and carcinogenic to
animals & Man
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FIELD FUNGI : SPOILAGE FUNGI MYCOTOXIGENIC FUNGI

A. tereus (4%) Aspergillus niger (80%) Aspergillus flavus (98%)

A. versicolor (7) A. tamarii (38%) A. fumigatus (3%)
Fusarium equiseti (7%) A. wentii (7%) A. ochraceus (4%)
F. longipes (13%) E. chevalieri (63%) P. citrinum (55%)
F. solani (5%) E. rubrum (62%) F. semitectum (14%)
Nigrosora oryzae (4%) Chaetomium
Rhizopus oryzae (75%) globusum (5%)
P. funiculosum (4%)
FIELD FUNGI : SPOILAGE FUNGI MYCOTOXIGENIC FUNGI

Curvularia fallax (7) Aspergillus candidus (5) A. flavus (80)

C. pallescens (6) A. niger (65) Fusarium moniliforme(73)
Lasiodiplodia A.tamarii (21) F. semitectum (34)
theobroma (38) A. wentii (10) F. proliferatum (7)
Nigrospora oryzae (11) Chaetomium funicola (9) Penicillium citrinum (45)
Penicillium funiculosum(5) C. globusum (11)
P. oxalicum (10) Eurotium chevalieri (48)
Rhizopus oryzae (33) E. rubrum (54)
R. stolonifer (6) E. repens (5)
Trichoderma harzianum(6)
 KEMIRI
(Aleurities mollucana)

FIELD FUNGI : SPOILAGE FUNGI MYCOTOXIGENIC FUNGI

Absidia corymbifera (16) Aspergillus niger (84) Aspergillus flavus (95)

Nigrosora oryzae (21) A. tamarii (32) A. versicolor (21)
Rhizopus oryzae (32) A. wentii (37) P. citrinum (53)
R. stolonifer (37) E. chevalieri (26) F. semitectum (14%)
Syncephalastrum E. rubrum (89)
racemosum (16) Chaetomium
globusum (37)
P. aethiopicum (16)
FIELD FUNGI : SPOILAGE FUNGI MYCOTOXIGENIC FUNGI

Bipolaris maydis (14) A. niger (17) Aspergillus flavus (80)

B. oryzae (23) A.tamarii (17) F. semitectum (63
Cladosporium Eurotium chevalieri (11) P. citrinum (23)
cladosporoides (11) E. rubrum (17) P. oxalicum (17)
Curvularia geniculata (14)
C. verruculosa (14)
Nigrosora oryzae (37)
Phoma spp (23)
Trichoconiella PADDY RICE
padwickii (13)

FIELD FUNGI : SPOILAGE FUNGI MYCOTOXIGENIC FUNGI

Alternaria longissima (4) A. niger (6) Aspergillus flavus (34)

Cladosporium A. sydowii (4) A. fumigatus (9)
cladosporoides (6) Eurotium chevalieri (18) A. versicolor (6)
Curvularia geniculata (4) E. rubrum (16) F. semitectum (4)
Nigrosora oryzae (4) P. citrinum (16)
Trichoconiella P. islandicum (5)
padwickii (17) MILLED RICE
 PEPPER

FIELD FUNGI SPOILAGE FUNGI MYCOTOXIGENIC FUNGI

Paecilomyces A. niger (60) Aspergillus flavus (90)

variotii (40) A.tamarii (90) A. versicolor (70)
A. sydowii (80) P. citrinum (50)
Emericella
nidulans (35)
Eurotium chevalieri (70)
Many fungi in one place!

Cladosporium Fusarium

Gibberella Fusarium

Penicillium Trichoderma
 Important Human Mycotoxicoses
Mycotoxin Toxicity
Ergot alkaloids St Anthony’s Fire (Europe in Middle
Ages)
(Hallucinations & loss of limbs)
A very early example of a mycotoxicosis
Aflatoxins Acutely toxic in high concentrations
(ppm)
Liver disease
Malnutrion (Kwashiokor)
Stunted growth St Anthony’s Fire
Liver cancer
Ochratoxin A Renal disease
e.g. “Balkan endemic nephropathy”
(but still open to debate!)
Fumonisins Human oesophageal cancer
Deoxynivalenol Nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain,
diarrhoea
T-2 Toxin “Alimentary toxic aleukia”
(Vomiting, diarrhoea, leukopenia)
Killed tens of thousands of people in Liver cancer
USSR in 1940s

35
 Kwashiokor

Liver Cancer Renal Disease

MECHANISM OF TOXICOLOGIC
DAMAGE
An intercalation inhibitor altering the target
selectivity of DNA damaging agents
 Prevention of mycotoxin-induced disease

a. Avoiding
b. Diluting
c. Cleaning
d. Testing
e. Drying
f. Adding (organic acids will prevent mold
growth)

39
 Action Level and Recommended Limits
for Total Aflatoxins in Livestock Feed
Class of Animals Feed Aflatoxin level
Finishing beef cattle Corn and peanut products 300 ppb

Beef cattle, swine or poultry Cottonseed meal 300 ppb

Finishing swine over 100 lb.
Breeding cattle and swine,
mature poultry
Immature animals
Dairy animals, animals not
listed elsewhere, or unknown
use (general market)
Corn and peanut products 200 ppb
Corn and peanut products 100 ppb
Animal feeds and ingredients
20 ppb
(excluding cottonseed meal)
Animal feeds and ingredients 20 ppb
 Advisory Levels for Deoxynivalenol
in Livestock Feed
DON level in
Feed Ingredients & portion of the
Class of Animals ingredients and
diet
(finished feed)
Ruminating beef and feedlot
10 ppm (10 ppm)
cattle older than 4 months
Ruminating dairy cattle older Grain and grain by-products not to
10 ppm (5 ppm)
than 4 months exceed 50% of the diet
Grain and grain by-products not to
Chickens 10 ppm (5 ppm)
exceed 50% of the diet
Grain and grain by-products not to
Swine 5 ppm (1 ppm)
exceed 20% of the diet
Grain and grain by-products not to
All other animals 5 ppm (2 ppm)
exceed 40% of the diet
 Guidance Levels for Total
Fumonisins in Livestock Feed
Fumonisin level in
Feed Ingredients & portion of the
Class of Animal ingredients and
diet
(finished feed)
Corn and corn by-products not to
Equids and rabbits 5 ppm (1 ppm)
exceed 20% of the diet
Corn and corn by-products not to
Swine and catfish 20 ppm (10 ppm)
exceed 50% of the diet
Ruminants, Poultry, and mink Corn and corn by-products not to
30 ppm (15 ppm)
(all breeding) exceed 50% of the diet
Ruminants ≥3 months old
Corn and corn by-products not to
being raised for slaughter and 60 ppm (30 ppm)
exceed 50% of the diet
mink for pelt production
Poultry being raised for Corn and corn by-products not to
100 ppm (50 ppm)
slaughter exceed 50% of the diet
All other species or classes of Corn and corn by-products not to
10 ppm (5 ppm)
livestock and pet animals exceed 50% of the diet
 SUPERMARKETS REACT BADLY TO MYCOTOXIN
CONTAMINATED PRODUCTS!!

• Brand damage
• Recall costs

Source: Press search; UK Food Standards Agency; RASFF database

43
 The application of Hazard Analysis & Critical Control Points (HACCP) Plans
for mycotoxin control throughout the food & feed value chains:

The mycotoxin content of batches are controlled at Critical Control Points (CCPs) as they pass along the value chain, requiring accurate & convenient sampling, sample preparation & analysis
methods

Drying & Border

Crop Harvest Transport Processing Retail
Storage Control

Sampling, sample preparation and analysis accurately performed at CCPs

ANALYSIS
SHOULD BE
PERFORMED
ACCURATELY &
CONSISTENTY!

44
 HACCP mycotoxin control methods are frequently employed
in food & feed processing plants:
Potential control points (CCPs and Good Manufacturing Practice)

Edible Nut Processing Feed Manufacturing

• At purchasing point of raw material(s) • At purchasing point of raw material(s)

• At factory gate • At factory gate
• After cleaning • After grinding
• After shelling • After mixing
• During & after optical sorting and hand • After pelleting
picking • After grading
• After roasting (if appropriate) • After bagging
• At the factory gate • At factory gate

45
 CEMARAN JAMUR PENGHASIL CEMARAN MIKOTOKSIN
MIKOTOKSIN CUKUP BESAR MENGKHAWATIRKAN??

LANGKAH-LANGKAH YANG PERLU

DIAMBIL

1. MENINGKATKAN KESADARAN MASYARAKAT AKAN BAHAYA YANG

DITIMBULKAN OLEH MIKOTOKSIN
2. PERBAIKAN METODE BUDIDAYA UNTUK MENGURANGI CEMARAN JAMUR DI
LAPANGAN
3. PERBAIKAN METODE PANEN DAN PASCA PANEN, DENGAN MENYEDIAKAN
ALAT PENGERING YANG MEMADAI DAN TEKNIK PENYIMPANAN YANG
BENAR
4. PENGEMBANGAN PROSES PENGOLAHAN UNTUK DETOKSIFIKASI
MIKOTOKSIN DALAM BAHAN MENTAH, BAIK SECARA KIMIAWI MAUPUN
BIOLOGIS MELALUI PROSES FERMENTASI
HOW TO REDUCE THE MYCOTOXINS

Aroyeun et al. (2011) described the potentials of, Aframomum

danielli spice in reducing OTA in cocoa powder as the authors found
that the powder of A. danielli can be used as a biopreservative
(maximum concentration of 60,000 ppm) in cocoa powder
contaminated with OTA.
Aframomum danielli
 SUMMARY
• Mycotoxins are:
• Chemical compounds
• Produced by specific fungi
• Contaminants of crops and other commodities worldwide
• 5 mycotoxins monitored under FDA surveillance programs
• Aflatoxins
• Deoxynivalenol (Vomitoxin)
• Zearalenone
• Fumonisins
• Ochratoxin A
• Toxic to humans and animals at very low levels
• Mycotoxin-producing fungi survive in soil/on crop residue