CE-115 Civil Engineering Materials

by
Engr. Khaliq Hussain
SCEE, NUST, Islamabad
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 Building Materials
 Building stones
 Bricks and clay products
 Cement concrete
 Timber and wood products
 Metals and alloys
 Paints, varnishes, distempers
 Asphalt, bitumen and tar
 Plastics and fibers
 Glass
 Asbestos, adhesives and abrasives

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 Bricks and Clay Products

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 Clay Products
 Clay Products
• Bricks
• Tiles
• Fire clays and fire bricks
• Terracotta
• Earthenware
• Clay pipes
 Bricks
• Block of tampered clay or ceramic material
molded to desired shape and size, sun dried
and if required burnt to make it more
strong, hard and durable

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 Bricks
 Commonly it is rectangular in shape
• Length = twice width of brick +
thickness of mortar
• Height = multiple of width of brick
• Usual size available in Pakistan is 8¾ x
4¼ x 2 ¾ inches to make it 9 x 4.5 x 3
inches with mortar
• Indian Standard size 19 x 9 x 9 cm and
19 x 9 x 4 cm to make it 20 x 10 x 10
cm and 20 x 10 x 5 cm with mortar
 Bricks are most common form of structural clay
products; others being tiles, pipes, terracotta,
earthenware, stoneware, porcelain, and majolica

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 Figure of Brick
Figure of Puca Brick
Showing different
parts and Dimension.
Frog

Length 19 Cm
Stretcher

Height 9 Cm

Riser

Width 9Cm
Header
 Brick Mold Figure

10Cm

21 Cm
 Historical Development
 Began as low walls of stones or caked mud
 Sun-dried bricks - With the availability of fire

became burnt bricks

 Invention of kilns made mass production of bricks

easy
 Limestone turned into lime mortar replaced mud

as mortar
 In Mesopotamia, palaces and temples were built

of stone and sun-dried bricks in 4000 B.C.

 The Egyptians erected their temples and

pyramids of stones by 3000 B.C.

 By 300 B.C., Greeks perfected their temples of

limestone and marble

 Romans made the first large-scale use of masonry

arches and roof vaults in their basilica, baths and

aqueducts

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 Historical Development
 Medieval and Islamic civilizations perfected masonry vaulting to a high
degree of development - Islamic craftsmen built palaces, markets, and
mosques of bricks and often faced them with brightly glazed tiles
 Europeans built fortresses and cathedrals using pointed vaults and flying
buttresses
 In America and Asia other cultures were building with stones
 During industrial revolution, machines were developed to quarry and cut
stones, mould bricks, and speed the transportation of these materials to
site of building
 Portland cement came into wide use and this enabled the construction of
masonry building of greater strength and durability

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 Historical Development
 Late in 19th century tall buildings were built, of steel and reinforced
concrete (pored into simple forms), economically
 Development of hollow concrete forms in 19th century averted the
extinction of masonry as a building material - Cavity wall,
developed by the British during the earlier part of the 19th century
also contributed to the survival of masonry as a building material
 This facilitated the introduction of thermal insulation
 High strength mortars, high-strength masonry units, and complex
shapes of masonry units extended the use of masonry for buildings

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 Historical Development
 Through the mid-1800s
• Primary Building Materials
 Late 1800s
• New Products Developed
• Ended Masonry’s Dominance
 20th Century Developments
• Steel Reinforced Masonry
• High Strength Mortars
• High Strength Masonry Units
• Variety of Sizes, Colors, Textures & Coatings

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 Adobe
 Spanish-American name applied to sun-dried brick and to
the clay soil from which the brick is made
 Adobe soil is composed of very fine mixture of clay, quartz,
and other minerals
 Adobe soil has great plasticity when moist, but when dry is
so coherent that tillage is almost impossible
 Soil is used combined with straw, molded and baked in sun
for 7 to 14 days
 Used in regions of low rainfall and dampness

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 Civil Engineering Uses
 Construction of exterior and interior
walls, partitions and boundary walls
 Construction of piers, abutments
 Construction of footings
 Construction of miscellaneous load
bearing structures

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 Classification of Bricks

Bricks

Sun Dried
Burnt
Katcha
Pucca
Un Burnt

Practice Usage Finish Manufacture Burning Strength

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 Classification of Bricks
 Sun Dried, Un-burnt or Kacha Bricks
• After molding dried in sun, and are used
in the construction of temporary
structures which are not exposed to
rains.
 Burnt or Pucca Bricks
• Burnt in an oven called kiln to provide
strength and durability

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 Classification of Burnt Bricks
Burnt
Bricks

Practice Usage Finish Manufacture Burning Strength

Common Sand Hand Pale Bricks

1st Class Class A
Brick Faced Made Under Burnt

Facing Machine Body Bricks

2nd Class Rustic Class B
Brick Made Well Burnt

Engg Arch Bricks Classes

3rd Class
Brick Over Burnt 350 to 35

4th Class

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 Classification of Burnt Bricks
Field Practice
 First Class Bricks
• Thoroughly burnt, deep red, cherry or copper color
• Straight edges, square corners, smooth surface
• Free from flaws, cracks, stones and nodules
• Uniform texture & ringing sound
• No scratch marks with fingernails
• Water absorption 12-15% of dry weight in 24 hours
• May have only slight efflorescence
• Crushing strength not less than 10.5 N/mm2
• Recommended for pointing, exposed face work, flooring and
reinforced brick work

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 Classification of Burnt Bricks
Field Practice
 Second Class Bricks
• Small cracks and distortions permitted
• Water absorption 16-20% of dry weight allowed
• Crushing strength not less than 7.0 N/mm 2
• Recommended for all hidden work and centering of RBC
 Third Class Bricks, Pilla Bricks
• Under burnt, Soft and light colored producing dull sound
• Water absorption 25% of dry weight
• Recommended for temporary structures
 Fourth Class Bricks, Jhama, Khingar
• Over burnt and badly distorted in shape and size
• Brittle in nature
• Ballast of these bricks used for foundation and floors and as road metal

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 Classification of Burnt Bricks
Strength Based
 Heavy Duty. Compressive strength > 40 N/mm2
 Classes
 Sub Classes
• Subclass A. Tolerance 0.3% in dimensions
• Subclass B. Tolerance 0.8% in dimensions
• 350 (35 N/mm2) 125 (12.5 N/mm2)
• 300 (30 N/mm2) 100 (10 N/mm2)
• 250 (25 N/mm2) 75 (7.5 N/mm2)
• 200 (20 N/mm2) 50 (5 N/mm2)
• 175 (17.5 N/mm2) 25 (2.5 N/mm2)
• 150 (15 N/mm2)

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 Classification of Burnt Bricks
 Basis of Usage
• Common Brick. General multi-purpose
• Facing Brick. Good appearance, color, textured,
durable under severe exposure
• Engineering Bricks. Strong, impermeable,
smooth and hard
 Basis of Finish
• Sand Faced Brick. Textured surface by
sprinkling sand inside mold
• Rustic. Mechanically textured finish

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 Classification of Burnt Bricks
 Basis of manufacturing method
• Hand Made. Hand molded
• Machine Made. Wire cut, pressed and
molded bricks
 Basis of Burning
• Pale Bricks are under burnt
• Body Bricks are well burnt in central
portion of kiln
• Arch Bricks are over burnt. Also called
clinker

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  Comparison
Bricks of Stones
Stone and Bricks 

• Manufactured from clay • Natural material

• Lighter • Heavier
• Moldable to any shape • High dressing cost
• Cheaper except in hilly • Costly except in hilly
areas areas
• More porous, needs • Less porous, good for
water proof treatment hydraulic structures
• Reasonable for normal • Greater strength
loads • Better heat conductor
• Poor heat conductor • Weather resistant
• Needs pointing and • Superior quality stone
plastering is monumental and
• Architectural effect is decorative
achievable

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 Ingredients of Good Brick Earth
 Brick earth is formed by the disintegration of igneous rocks.
Potash feldspars, orthoclase or microcline yield clay minerals
which decompose to yield koliite, a silicate of alumina. On
hydration it gives a clay deposit Al2O3. 2H2O called kaolin.
Alumina or clay 20-30% by weight
Silica or sand 35-50% by weight
Silt 20-35% by weight
 Remaining ingredients 1-2% by weight
 Lime (CaO)
 Magnesia (MgO)
 Iron oxides
 Alkalis (Sodium potash, etc)
Water

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 Ingredients of Good Brick Earth
 Silica, Sand – Present as free sand or silicate. Its
presence in clay produces hardness, resistance to
heat, durability and prevents shrinkage and warping.
 Alumina – Fine grained mineral compound. Moldable
plastic when wet, becomes hard, shrinks, warps and
cracks when dry.
 Lime – Acts as binder for brick particles. Reduces
shrinkage when present in small amount, excess
causes the brick to melt and lose shape.

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 Ingredients of Good Brick Earth
 Magnesia – Provides darker yellow
color with iron. Usually less than 1%.
 Iron Oxide – Helps fusion of brick
and provides light yellow to red color
to brick. Should not be present as
iron pyrites

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 Ingredients of Good Brick Earth
 Harmful Substances
• Lime in excess or in lumps and pebbles, gravel, etc
• Iron Pyrites
• Alkalis in excess
• Organic Matter
• Carbonaceous Materials
 Additives
• Fly Ash – silicates help in strength development
• Sandy Loam – controls drying of plastic soil
• Rice Husk Ash – controls excessive shrinkage
• Basalt Stone Dust – modifies shaping, drying & firing

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 Operations in Manufacturing of Bricks
 Preparation of Brick Earth
• Un-soiling
• Digging
• Weathering
• Blending
• Tempering
 Molding of Bricks
 Drying of Bricks
 Burning of Bricks
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 Preparation of Brick Earth
 Un-soiling – Removal of top 20 cm organic matter and
freeing from gravel, coarse sand, lime etc
 Digging – additives spread, soil excavated, puddled, watered
and left over for weathering
 Weathering – heaps left for one month for oxidation and
washing away of excessive salts in rain
 Blending – sandy earth and calcareous earth mixed in right
proportions with right amount of water
 Tempering – kneading of blended soil with feet or with a pug
mill to improve plasticity and homogeneity

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Weathering of Brick clay
Blending Brick clay
Pug Mill
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 Manufacturing of Burnt Bricks
 Molding – giving right shape
• molding
 Ground molding. Molded on sand. No frog in bricks
 Table molding. Molded on stock boards with frog

• Machine molding
 Plastic method or Stiff-Mud process. Molded stiff clay
bar cut by wire into brick size pieces. Structural clay
products
 Dry Press method. Moist powdered clay fed
 into machine to be molded into bricks. Roof, floor and
wall tiles

 Drying – Removing 7-30% moisture

present during molding stage. This
controls shrinkage, fuel and burning time.
Natural open air driers in shades

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 Brick Molds

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Hand moulding of Bricks
 Table Molding

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 Plastic Molding

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 Strikes

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Drying of Bricks Naturally
Drying of Bricks
Protection of Dry Bricks
Burning of Bricks (Kiln)
Burning of the Bricks (Coal)
First Class Bricks
2Nd Class Bricks
Over burnt Bricks
 Manufacturing of Burnt Bricks
 Burning Stages
• Dehydration (400-650 °C). Water smoking
stage in which water from pores driven off
• Oxidation (650-900 °C). Carbon eliminated
and ferrous iron oxidized to ferric form.
Sulphur is removed
• Vitrification (900-1250 °C). Mass converted
into glass like substance
• Incipient vitrification. Clay just softens to
adherence
• Complete vitrification. Maximum shrinkage
• Viscous vitrification. Soft molten mass,
loss in shape, glossy structure on
cooling

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 Manufacturing of Burnt Bricks
 Clamp or Paza wah Burning
• Alternate layers of bricks and fuel encased in
mud plaster.
• Fuel consists of grass, cow dung, litter, wood,
coal dust
• Brick layer consists of four to five courses of
brick
• 25,000 to 100,000 bricks in three months
cycle
 Kiln Burning
• Intermittent kiln. Loaded, fired, cooled and
unloaded before next loading
• Continuous kiln. Bricks are loaded, fired, dried
and cooled simultaneously in different
chambers. Example: Bull’s trench kiln and
Hoffman’s kiln
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Clamp of
Pazawah
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Intermittent
Kiln
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Hoffman’s
Continuous
Kiln
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 Bull’s Trench Kiln

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 Bull’s
Trench
Kiln
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 Typical Kiln in Pakistan

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 Bricks stock for drying

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 Bricks stocks for drying

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 Characteristics of Good Bricks
 Size and shape – uniform size, rectangular
surfaces, parallel sides, sharp straight edges
 Color – uniform deep red, cherry
 Texture and compactness – uniform texture,
fractured surface should not show fissures,
holes, grits or lumps of lime
 Hardness and soundness – not scratch able by
finger nail. Produce metallic ringing sound
 Water absorption – should not exceed 20% wt
 Crushing strength – not less than 10.5 N/mm2
 Brick earth – free from stones, organic matter

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LECTURE NO.7

We will study about following:-

i) Miscellaneous types , Shape

of Bricks.
ii) Refractory Bricks, types and
use.
iii) Brick bond.
 Miscellaneous Brick Types
 Heavy duty bricks
 Perforated bricks
 Paving bricks
 Soling bricks
 Hollow bricks
 Jalis
 Clay tiles
 Fire-clay or refractory bricks

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 a. Round ended
brick
b. Cant brick
c. Splay brick
d. Cornice brick
e. Compass brick
f. Bull nosed brick
g. Perforated brick
h. Hollow brick
i. Coping brick
j. Plinth level brick
k. Split brick (Queen
Special closer)

Forms of l. Split brick (King

closer)
Bricks
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 Specially Shaped Bricks

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Extruded – Wire Cut Extruded – Smooth

Wood Mold
Extruded – Raked
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 Refractory Bricks (Fire-Clay Bricks)
 These Bricks are made from fire-clay,
using same process as an ordinary clay.
 The color of the Brick is yellow or light
brown.
 The water absorption varies from 4-10
%.
 The compressive strength bet 150-200
N/mm2

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 Uses of Refractory Bricks
• Used for the lining blast furnaces, Ovens,
Kiln, Boilers and Cimneys.
• Acid Refractory Bricks (95-97% silica and1-2%
lime) used in lining furnaces having acidic
slag, steel industry and coke oven.
• Basic Refractory Bricks consists of Magnesia
(85% + aluminum oxide 20% max) are used for
lining furnaces having basic slag.

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 Uses of refractory Bricks
NeutralRefractoryBricks

 consists of chromite bricks (50% chrome+

30% iron oxide,bauxite+ 15% aluminium
and 5% silica) are used for lining copper
reverberatory
furnaces. Where acid and basic lining are to
be
separated.
Refractory Bricks
 Use of Refractory Bricks
 In Ovens
 Use of Refractory Bricks
 In Ovens
 Testing of Bricks

 Sample prepared from Dimension Test.

Sample size 50. 20 pieces selected to
determine length, width and height
tolerances.
 Compressive strength Test. smooth, parallel
face, brick is soaked 24 hours and stored
under damp jute bags for 24 hours followed
by further immersion in water for three days.
Load applied @ 14 N/mm per minute till
failure. Maximum load at failure divided by
average area of bed face gives compressive
strength.

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 Testing of Bricks
 Absorption Test.
• 24 hours immersion cold water test.
 Dry bricks oven dried at 105° ± 5° C
 Room temperature cooled bricks weighed W
1
 Bricks immersed in water at 27° ± 2° C for 24
hrs
 Soaked bricks weighed W
2
 Water absorption in % = (W – W )/W x 100
2 1 1
• Five hours boiling water test
 Oven dried bricks weight W1
 Bricks immersed in water and boiled for 5
hours and then cooled down at room
temperature in 16-19 hours
 Cooled down weight as W3
 Water absorption in % = (W – W )/W x 100
3 1 1

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 Testing of Bricks

 Warping Test. 10 bricks sample is used.

 concave warping
• Convex warping
 Efflorescence Test. Ends of brick kept in 150 mm
dia porcelain/glass dish containing 25 mm deep
water at 20°–30°C till all water is absorbed
• Nil imperceptible efflorescence
• Slight deposit covers area < 10% of exposed
area
• Moderate deposit covers exposed area 10%
to 50%
• Heavy deposit covers exposed area > 50%
• Serious deposits are heavy and powder or
flake away the surface

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 Defects of Bricks
 Over-burning. Burnt beyond complete vitrification
 Under-burning. Burnt less not to cause complete
vitrification
 Bloating. Spongy swollen mass over the surface due to
excess carbonaceous matter and sulphur
 Black Core. Due to bituminous matter or carbon
 Efflorescence. Grey of white crystallization of alkalis on
the surface, due to water absorption
 Chuffs. Deformation due to rainwater falling or hot
bricks
 Checks or Cracks. Due to lumps of lime getting in
contact with water
 Spots. Dark sulphur spots due to iron sulphides
 Blisters. Broken blisters due to air entrapped during
molding
 Laminations. Thin lamina produced due to air
entrapped in voids of clay

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 Miscellaneous Clay Products
• Porous terracotta. Clay plus sawdust or cork
• Polished terracotta. Glazed architectural clay
 Porcelain. High grade, white, zero water
absorption and glazed material of clay, kaolin,
quartz and feldspar
• Soft porcelain
• Hard porcelain
 Stoneware. Colored porcelain with silica and
alumina. Flooring tiles
 Earthenware. Drain pipes, lavatory fittings, light
partition walls
 Majolica. Italian earthenware coated with opaque
white enamel, ornamented with metallic colors
 Glazing
• Transparent glazing. Sodium chloride used
while burning
• Lead glazing. Burned items dipped in lead
oxide solution
• Opaque glazing. Borax, kaolin, chalk, color,
feldspar and lead oxide fired. Resulting
moltTerracotta. Ornamental, impervious, hard
clay
• en glass poured in water to give shattered look
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 Brick Masonry Bonds
i) English bond Header and stretcher laid in
alternate courses
ii) Flemish bond Header and stretchers laid
in same course alternately.
iii) Header bond All the bricks laid as header
in every course.
iv) Stretcher bond All the bricks laid as
stretcher in every course
v) Garden wall bond Max. nos. of stretchers laid to get
even surface on sides of the wall.
vi) Raking bond The bond having all the bricks laid at
an angle to the facing and backing of
wall in opposite direction in alternate
course.

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 Bricks Masonry Bond
vii) Dutch bond The bond having headers and Stretchers laid
in alternate courses, every stretcher course
started with ¾” brick-bat.
viii) Monk bond The bond having two stretchers and one header laid
alternately in each course.
ix Zig-Zag The bond having bricks laid in a Zig-Zag fashion.
bond
X )Brick on In this bond all bricks are laid on their edge.
edge bond
xi) Silver lock The bond having bricks laid in alternative courses in
s bond such a way that headers are laid on bed &
Sstretcher
are laid on edge, forming a cavity in the wall length.
xii) Hoop Iron The bond having reinforcement in the form of ties.
bond

xiii) Facing bond The bond having bricks of different thickness and
qualities, are used for facing and backing of the
wall.
 Brick bonds

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 View of an old Brick Wall

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 Flemish Bond

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Different types of Brick Bonds
Double Stretcher Bond
Garden Bond
 Basic Brickwork Terminology

Head
Joint

Bed
Joint

Course - horizontal layer of brick

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 Basic Brickwork Terminology

Header - Bonds two wythes together

Wythe: vertical layer 1 unit thick

Rowlock -
laid on face,
end visible

Stretcher - long dimension horizontal

& face parallel to the wall

Soldier - Laid on its end, face parallel

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Joint Color that “Blends” w/ Brick Color
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 Concave Joints

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 Raked Joints

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 Simulated Precast Concrete Lintel
(actually a steel lintel supports the assembly)

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 Arch

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 Specially Shaped Bricks

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