Biological Fluid Stain Evidence: Blood and Semen

Chapter 7
Biological Fluid Stain Evidence:

Blood and Semen
Crime Scene Investigation and Reconstruction, Third Edition
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

All rights reserved.
Precautions for Biological
Evidence
 Biological material must be considered
hazardous!
 Follow universal precautions for handling
 Use protective eyewear, respirator masks,
latex gloves, and protective clothing when
working with materials having biological
stains
Crime Scene Investigation and Reconstruction, Third Edition © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Ogle 7-2 All Rights Reserved.
Biological Fluid Evidence
 The majority of biological fluid stains
encountered at the crime scene consists
of blood, semen, or saliva
 Blood stains are typically found in crimes
of violence
 Semen and saliva stains typically result
from sexual assault crimes
Nature of Bloodstain Evidence
 May be encountered as physical evidence
in a variety of crimes:
 Homicide
 Sexual assault
 Vehicular hit and run
 Burglary
Bloodstain Evidence Collection
 The proper collection of bloodstain
evidence is essential to the quantity and
quality of information derived from the
stains
 Can assist in establishing elements of
the crime and the identification or
elimination of a suspect
Two Primary Categories of
Examination
 Bloodstain pattern interpretation—
may establish whether or not a crime
occurred
 Genetic marker typing—it is
important to establish from whom the
bloodstain pattern emanated
Genetic Markers
 Genetic marker testing procedures focus on
short tandem repeat (STR) profiling of the
blood, semen, and tissue specimens
 PCR-based STR system is the basis for the
electronic database of DNA types: CODIS
 More laboratories are instituting genetic
marker testing for mitochondrial DNA
(mtDNA), another PCR-based system
Nature of DNA
 The chromosomes, which carry the genetic
material in the cells, are made up of DNA
 DNA is the material that carries all the genetic
information for inheritance from generation to
generation
 DNA is referred to as a “double helix” because
it is made up of two strands hooked together
and twisted into a helical configuration
Types of DNA
 There are two types of cells in the body
(somatic cells)
 The two types are defined by the
presence or absence of a cell nucleus
Types of DNA- Cells with a
Nucleus
 Nuclear DNA—chromosomal component
from each parent—called “diploid”
 Examples of cells with a nucleus include
the cells lining the mouth, the cells in
the liver, and the cells of the muscles
Crime Scene Investigation and Reconstruction, Third Edition 7- © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Ogle 10 All Rights Reserved.
Types of DNA- Cells without a
Nucleus
 Cells without a nucleus begin with a
nucleus, but during maturation of the
cell, the nucleus is removed from the cell
 Examples of cells without a nucleus are
the red blood cells, the cells of the
epidermis (outer skin layer), and cells of
the finger and toe nails.
Crime Scene Documentation of
Bloodstains
 Take careful notes regarding the
location and the appearance of
bloodstains at the crime scene
 Information such as the presence of
pooling, clotting, mold growth, and
other features of the stains should be
documented in the notes
Bloodstain Collection
Precautions
 Necessary to follow the safety
precautions for handling biological
evidence
 The nature of biological evidence
requires special handling to avoid
decomposition of the materials by the
action of microorganisms such as mold or
bacteria
Collection Precautions
 Bloodstain evidence should be dried at room
temperature and then kept frozen until
submitted to the crime lab
 Liquid specimens should be refrigerated not
frozen
 For all types of biological evidence the sooner
they are transported to the crime lab the better
the chances of avoiding loss of the information
contained in the evidence
Crime Scene Documentation of Blood
Stains
 Notes—location and appearance of
bloodstains at the crime scene
 Photographs—must be taken with
color film and in a manner that will
allow for accurate re-creation of the
spatial relationships of the stains
Searching for Bloodstains
 Bloodstains are normally visible and have
a characteristic red-brown appearance
 Stains that appear to be blood can be
checked with a blood-screening agent by
lightly moistening a swab
 Use blood-testing reagent such as
phenolphthalein for screening of suspected
stains
Field Testing Bloodstains
 ABAcard HemaTrace testing method
provides both a rapid screening test for
the field and a confirmatory test for
human hemoglobin in the laboratory
HemaTrace Test
Bloodstains that are “Invisible”
 May have been cleaned up or wiped off
 Visualized by spraying with luminol and
viewing in the dark.
 Luminol reacts with a portion of the
hemoglobin in blood to produce a chemical
that glows in the dark
 The phosphorescence can then be
photographed
Bloodstain Pattern
Documentation: Step 1
 Requires accurate sketches and
photographs
 Taken with markers in the field of view
which will orient each of the photographs to
the sketches drawn to scale
 Investigator should first prepare overall
sketches and take overall photographs of the
entire area bearing the bloodstain patterns
Bloodstain Pattern
 Take mid-range photographs and
prepare blow-up sketches for each area
of bloodstain patterns
 The overall and mid-range sketches and
photographs will provide the framework
for assembling the close-up
photographs and sketches
Bloodstain Pattern
 Take close-up photographs to
document the bloodstain patterns
 The close-up photographs must have
markers in the field of view of each
photograph frame in order to provide
measurement data for the patterns
Bloodstain Pattern
 Use grids of two-foot squares
constructed from string and thumbtacks
to document the bloodstain patterns
 The strings should not be allowed to touch
the stains
 The squares are labeled according to their
position in the grid
Bloodstain Pattern
 Photograph the squares
 Ensure the camera film plane or image sensor is
parallel to the surface and centered in each
square photographed in order to minimize
distortion
Film plane
Camera tripod
Floor plane
Lens centered over square or stain
Photograph the Squares
Wall
Film plane parallel to the surface
Center
lens
Use a tripod
Floor
Collection of Bloodstain
Evidence
 When feasible, the surface(s) bearing the
bloodstains should be collected and
submitted to the laboratory
 Note that dry bloodstains may easily flake
off smooth surfaces, so that photography of
the stains is necessary even if the surface
bearing the stains is collected
Evidence
 Contamination and cross-contamination are
concerns when collecting bloodstain evidence
 The best approach to prevent cross-
contamination of samples is to use
individually packaged sterile cotton swabs for
collection of bloodstains and to package each
swab in a separate container
Evidence
 The particular technique used for
collecting bloodstain evidence depends
on the nature of the bloodstain,
whether wet or dry, and the surface
bearing the bloodstain
General Rules!
 As a general rule, bloodstained
evidence should be dried and frozen to
preserve the genetic markers in the
stains
 Collect the entire object bearing the
stains
General Rules!
 Allow the stains to air dry completely,
then package each item in a separate
paper bag or envelope
 Do not package bloodstained evidence
in plastic bags, because plastic bags
promote the growth of microorganisms
by retaining moisture
Metal/Glass Bloodstain
Collection
 Immerse the swabs in the stain if moist,
or by slightly moistening swabs with
distilled water and then swabbing stains
 Once the swabs have been collected
they should be labeled, air dried, the tip
wrapped in bindle paper, and sealed in
a manila envelope
Large Liquid Pool Collection
 Absorb a sample of the pool onto sterile
cotton swabs
 Allow swabs to air dry completely
 Package in paper bindles
 Seal in paper envelopes or swab boxes
Swab of Collected Bloodstain
Collection From Wood or
Carpets
 Allow stains to air dry completely
 Cut out the stained area
 Package in a paper bag or envelope
 Collect a portion of the unstained
surface as a control and package it
separately
Collection From Brick,
Concrete, or Pavement
 Collect the stain by using slightly
dampened (with distilled water) sterile
cotton swab
 Allow to air dry
 Package in a paper bag or envelope
 Package separately
Collection From Clothing
 Whenever possible the entire garment
bearing the bloodstains should be
collected
 The garment should be dried out before
packaging
 Avoid folding or crumpling before drying
 Package each garment in a separate
paper bag
Blood Samples From
Postmortem Subjects
 Should be obtained from areas such as
the heart or one of the major blood
vessels
 If decomposition has begun in addition
to the blood sample have the autopsy
pathologist collect a portion of deep
muscle for blood-typing purposes
Comparison Standard Samples
for DNA Typing
 Use buccal swabs (swabs of cheeks of
mouth interior).
 These samples are obtained by swabbing
the interior cheeks with sterile swabs
 A blood sample drawn in an appropriate
blood tube containing an anticoagulant
General Collection Issues
 Submit all items to the lab as soon as possible
 Avoid exposing biological evidence to heat,
humidity, and sunlight
 If the evidence cannot be immediately sent to
the crime lab then refrigerate liquid blood
samples, air dry all bloodstained items, freeze
bloodstained items after drying, and package
in paper bags to avoid mold growth
DNA Analysis/ Two
Approaches
 RFLP—Restriction Fragment Length
Polymorphisms
 PCR—Polymerase Chain Reaction—now

the method of choice in forensic labs
PCR Preference
 Allows for analysis of biological stains
that are much smaller than the size
needed for RFLP
 Allows for analysis of stains that have
become degraded from environmental
damage or age
PCR Preference
 Provide data for discrete alleles on the
chromosome, whereas RFLP does not
 The data in CODIS are derived from
STR (short tandem repeats) analyses of
known blood samples against which an
unknown stain can be compared
 Allows for the determination of the
gender of the source of the stain
CODIS
 An acronym for “Combined DNA Index
System”
 A national database system like the
AFIS system for latent fingerprints
 Instrumental in exonerating many
individuals wrongly convicted of a crime
and solving cold cases by finding
matches for the DNA in those cases
Preservation of DNA Samples
 Care must be taken to keep the
samples free from moisture
 If the specimens are to be examined for
conventional genetic markers and DNA
then they should be kept frozen at –20
degrees centigrade
Semen Evidence
 Semen is defined as the male ejaculate
 Semen consists of the secretions of a
number of glands in the male
reproductive tract
 Semen contains sperm from the testes
contained within a fluid derived from the
reproductive glands referred to as “seminal
plasma”
Semen Evidence
 The main constituents of semen that are
of interest in forensic science are the
sperm and the fluid from the prostate
gland, which contains the protein P-30
 In those males who lack sperm because of
a vasectomy or a medical condition the
semen is identified by identifying the P-30
protein
Collection of Semen Evidence
 Semen evidence is usually collected in much
the same manner as bloodstained evidence
 Keep in mind the universal precautions for
handling biological evidence
 Semen evidence must be dried thoroughly
before packaging to prevent bacterial and
mold growths
Clothing from the Victim
 The clothing the victim wore
before/during the assault
 The clothing may contain bloodstains or
semen stains from the perpetrator or
transfer evidence such as hairs and fibers
 The clothing may also have evidence of
forcible removal from the victim, such as
rips in the fabric or buttons torn from the
garment
Laboratory Examinations of
Semen Evidence
 The laboratory examinations of
suspected semen stains are directed
toward
 Locating suspected semen stains
 Identification of the components of semen
 Identification of the individual source of the
semen through DNA testing
DNA Testing of Semen Stains
 DNA testing of semen stains is the same
as that for blood DNA testing with the
exception of the preliminary treatment of
the stains needed to prepare them for
DNA analysis
 As few as 100 sperm are required for
successful DNA analysis using the PCR
technique
Comparison Standards for
DNA Analysis of Semen
 The DNA comparison standards are the
same as for blood stains
 The preferred method for obtaining
comparison standards is to use buccal
swabs
Saliva Evidence
 Saliva is produced by three salivary
glands in the mouth (parotid,
submaxillary, and sublingual)
 Saliva assists in keeping the mouth moist,
in chewing, and swallowing
 It contains an enzyme, salivary amylase,
which breaks down starches into maltose
(a sugar) and dextrin
Occurrence of Saliva Evidence
 Saliva evidence is encountered in sexual
assault cases, where the assailant bites,
performs oral sex, or otherwise places
the mouth on the victim
 Saliva evidence also occurs on items
such as cigarette butts, drinking glasses,
stamps, envelope flaps, and the victim’s
clothing
Collecting Saliva Evidence
 Samples of saliva evidence are collected
via:
 Swabs
 Collection of the entire object bearing the
saliva stains
 In sexual assault cases, dried saliva stains
on the victim’s body are collected using
moistened swabs
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Chapter 7

Biological Fluid Stain Evidence:

Crime Scene Investigation and Reconstruction, Third Edition

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

 PCR—Polymerase Chain Reaction—now

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