WHAT IS CURRENT?

• Electrons are charge carriers

• Unit of charge is the Coulomb (C)
• Current is the rate of flow of charge
• 1C of negative charge = total charge carried by
6.242×1018 electrons
• Charge of 1 electron = 1/ 6.242×1018 = 1.6×10-19C
• Charge can either be positive or negative
• Electric current exists when there is a net transfer of
charge in a material

For example: If you inject electrons into a copper wire,

they travel through the wire and emerge at the other
end → current in the wire
• Current = rate at which charge is transferred
• Unit of Current = Ampere (Amp)
• 1A = rate of flow of charge of 1C in 1 second i.e.
• Current (I) = Charge (Q) / Time (s)

Fundamentals of Electric 1
al Circuits
 WHAT IS VOLTAGE?

• To establish a flow of charge through a conductor, we need to exert a force on

the electrons that carry the charge
• This is called electromotive force (emf)
• To sustain flow, electrons need a destination such as the positive and negative
terminals of a battery
• Unit of EMF is the volt
• Named after Alessandra Volta
• The greater the voltage of a source of EMF, the greater the current it can produce
• EMF is also called electric potential, which is the same as talking about the
ability (potential) of a voltage source to produce current
• We say E volts across the voltage source or component
• Symbol for voltage source and its terminals

_
+

Fundamentals of Electric 2
al Circuits
 WHAT IS RESISTANCE?

• It is the measure to the extent to which a material interferes

with, or resists, the flow of current through it
• A conductor has small resistance, an insulator has high
resistance
• Unit of resistance is the Ohm (George Ohm) - R
• The symbol of the Ohm is Ω
• For a perfect conductor, its resistance is 0 Ω
• A perfect insulator has a resistance of ∞ Ω

• Conventional current needs a complete path to flow

• There must be a destination that will accept electrons, and
there must also be a source of electrons

+ I
E
R
-

Fundamentals of Electric 3
al Circuits
 OHM’S LAW

• The greater the voltage at a source, the greater the current

it can produce
• Current produced in a resistor is directly proportional to
the voltage of the source
• Resistance reduces the flow of current
• Current is inversely proportional to resistance, i.e. the
greater the resistance, the less the current
• For a fixed resistance R, the current I increases with an
increase in the voltage V at the source
• This is Ohm’s Law, which is a linear relationship
• V = IR; I = V/R; R = V/I

+ I
24V 8  V /I = R
-

Question:
How much voltage is necessary to create a flow of 0.24C
in 0.8s through a resistance of 500 Ω?

Fundamentals of Electric 4
al Circuits
 THE VOLTMETER

• Used to measure
+
voltage across a 6V
+
V
component -
-

• Always connected in
parallel to a component +
+
• The voltmeter in the first 6V
-
V R

three circuits will always - -

read 6V
• The voltmeter in the +
+

6V
forth circuit reads -6V -
R
V

-
• Voltmeters have black
(negative or common)
-
and red (positive) 6V
+
V
R
terminals -
+

Fundamentals of Electric 5
al Circuits
 THE AMMETER

• Used to measure
current
+ 3A
• To measure current 2 4V 8
-
flowing in a resistance,
you must disconnect
the resistance and insert 8
the ammeter in such a
way so that all the +
current flowing in the + A
24V
resistance also flows - -
through the ammeter,
i.e. in series with the
resistance +
A
• The ammeter in these
+ -
circuits will read 3A 24V
-

8

Fundamentals of Electric 6
al Circuits
 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

• Work – energy spent to overcome a restraint to achieve

a physical change
• Energy is the ability to do work
• Energy and work have the same SI units – Joules (J)
• Power – rate at which energy is expended (Joules/sec)
• Unit of power = watt = Joules per second = Js-1
• Power (P) = Work (W)/Time (t); W = Pt
• When electrical current flows through a resistance,
electrical energy is converted to heat energy at a rate
that depends on the voltage across the resistance and
the value of current through it, i.e.
• Power (P) = Voltage (V) × Current (I) (watts)
• P = V2/R = I2R (watts)
• Power ‘delivered’ to a resistance = power dissipated in
resistance
• A kilowatt-hour (kWh) is the total energy delivered or
consumed in one hour, and is used in industry
• kWh = (P in kW) × (t in hours)

Fundamentals of Electric 7
al Circuits
 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER
EXAMPLES

• A 12V DC power source is connected to a 500Ω

resistor that has a tolerance of ±5%. What is the
maximum and minimum power that can be dissipated in
the resistance?

• Electrical energy costs £0.12/kWh. For how long could

a 900W oven be operated without costing more than
36p?

Fundamentals of Electric 8
al Circuits
 POWER RATING OF RESISTORS

• If the power rating of a resistor is too small for a

particular application, then the resistor will not be able
to dissipate heat at a rate rapid enough to prevent
destructive temperature build up
• Resistors that are physically large in size have a
greater surface area, so they dissipate heat faster

• Question: A 200Ω resistor has a 2W power rating.

What is the maximum current that can flow in the
resistor without exceeding the power rating?

Fundamentals of Electric 9
al Circuits
 RESISTOR COLOUR CODES

• 0 Black
• 1 Brown
• 2 Red
• 3 Orange
• 4 Yellow
• 5 Green
• 6 Blue 1st
• 7 Violet 2nd
• 8 Grey 3rd
• 9 White
• 5% Gold
• 10% Silver Tolerance
• 20% None

• Yellow; violet; orange;

silver = 47×103Ω ±10%
• Brown,black,red?
• Blue,grey,black,gold?

Fundamentals of Electric 10
al Circuits
 CONDUCTANCE

• Conductance is the reciprocal of resistance

• Conductance is the ability of a material to pass
electrons
• The higher the resistance, the lower the conductance
• Symbol of Conductance is G
• Unit of conductance is the Siemen (S)
• G = 1/R Siemens

• What are the resistance and conductance ranges of a

75kΩ ± 10% resistor?

Fundamentals of Electric 11
al Circuits
 REAL AND IDEAL SOURCES

• Ideal voltage source – one that maintains a constant

terminal voltage, no matter how much current is drawn
from it
• E.g. a 12V source should theoretically maintain 12V
across 1MΩ resistor (I = 12μA), across 1k Ω (I = 12mA)
and across 1 Ω (I = 12A)
• But all real voltage sources have an internal resistance
that causes the terminal voltage to drop if the current is
made large, i.e. if a small value of resistance is
connected across the terminals
• However, for ease in practical analysis, it is convenient
to assume that a voltage source is ideal, i.e. we can
neglect its internal resistance

Fundamentals of Electric 12
al Circuits
 REAL AND IDEAL SOURCES

• An ideal current source (or constant current source)

supplies the same current to any resistor connected
across its terminals.
• Symbol
18mA

• The voltage across the terminals of the source will

change if the resistance R changes.
• A 2A current source with a 10Ω resistor, E = 20V
• A 2A Current source with a 100 Ω, E = 200V
• However an ideal current source cannot be constructed
because it will always have an internal resistance that
causes a current drop if the voltage becomes very large
(i.e. for a large R)
• Current source is really a voltage source with certain
characteristics (we’ll see this later)
• Active components – voltage and current sources as
they ‘furnish’ electrical energy to a circuit
• Passive components – Such as resistors

Fundamentals of Electric 13
al Circuits
 READ AND IDEAL SOURCES
EXAMPLE

• A constant current source develops a terminal voltage

of 9V when a 500Ω resistor is connected across its
terminals. What is the terminal voltage when the 500Ω
resistor is replaced by a 1.5kΩ resistor?

• Solve the question with the aid of circuit diagrams.

Fundamentals of Electric 14
al Circuits
 LINEARITY

• An electrical device is linear if its V v I graph is a

straight line
• Many circuit analysis techniques can only be applied to
circuits composed of linear devices, such as resistors.
• Graph of a linear component such as a resistor, where
the gradient ΔV / ΔI = R
• The voltage across a device is directly proportional to
the current through it

ΔV / ΔI = R

Fundamentals of Electric 15
al Circuits
 ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

• An electric circuit is a configuration of interconnected

resistors, active sources or other electrical components
through which current flows
• A complete circuit is a circuit where there is a path
from the source back to the source
• A circuit diagram is also known as a schematic
• Circuit analysis is the process of determining current
flows and voltages that exist is various parts of a circuit.
• There are two basic kinds of connections that we will
encounter when we analyse circuits
• 1) Series
• 2) Parallel

Fundamentals of Electric 16
al Circuits
 SERIES CIRCUITS (1)

• Two components have a common terminal when there is a path of

zero resistance from the terminal of one to the terminal of the other
• Two components are connected in series if they have exactly 1
common terminal and if no other component has a terminal that
shares that common connection
• Important property – current is the same in every series connected
component
• Current in one component = current in a component in series with it
• For resistors connected in series RT = R1 + R2 +…+ Rn
• For a voltage source in series → Ohm’s Law IT = V/RT

Fundamentals of Electric 17
al Circuits
 SERIES CIRCUITS EXAMPLES

• It is necessary to limit the current in a certain light

emitting diode (LED) to 50mA. The resistance of the
LED is 250Ω and it is connected in series with a 5V
source. How much resistance should be inserted in
series with the LED?

• Find the current in and voltage across each resistor of

the circuit below.

+V1-
+
IT↑ R1 = 12Ω R2 = 6Ω V2
-
E = 24V
+
R4 = 20Ω R3 = 10Ω V3
-
-V4+

Fundamentals of Electric 18
al Circuits
 KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW (1)

• Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law: The sum of the voltage drops around any closed loop
equals the sum of the voltage rises around the loop
• Example Consider the series circuit below containing a voltage source and 3 resistors
• What is the total series resistance, and the current flow?
• What are the voltage drops across each resistor?
• How can we verify Kirchhoff’s voltage law?

3 5 2
+ - + - + -

+
20V
-

Fundamentals of Electric 19
al Circuits
 KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW (2)

• A circuit is a closed loop circuit (see previous slide)

• When the loop passes through a component from
positive (+) to negative (-), then the voltage across that
component is a drop
• When the loop passes from – to +, it is a voltage rise
• Voltage rises occur from source voltages
• Voltage rise – voltage drop = 0
• Σ(voltage drops) = Σ(voltage rises)
• The direction of the loop is merely for analytical
purposes, and does not have any affect on the result of
Kirchhoff's voltage law
• The direction of the loop does not have to be the same
as the direction of the current flow
• We measure voltage across source terminals, which we
label. Here Vab = -Vba
a a
+ -
Vab Vba
b - b +

Fundamentals of Electric 20
al Circuits
 KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW
EXAMPLES

E
-13.2V+ -23.4V+

2.2kΩ 3.9kΩ
-
1.8kΩ 10.8V
+
1.1kΩ

+6.6V-

• By drawing a loop to represent current flow, find E and

hence the total current in the circuit above.

R1 = 2kΩ R2 = 1kΩ
a+
24V R3 = 3kΩ
b-

• Use Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law to find Vab in the circuit

above. You may find it useful to identify the number of
loops there are in this circuit.

Fundamentals of Electric 21
al Circuits
 OPEN CIRCUITS

• An open circuit is a gap, break or interruption in a

circuit path.
• Open circuits result in no current flow in a series circuit
where there is a break.
• If the current I = 0, then from Ohm’s Law R = V/I, which
leads to V/0 = ∞ = R
• Therefore at an open circuit, there is an infinite
resistance
• We may think of an open circuit as a fault, but it can be
useful for circuit analysis
• Loads are often measured in terms of its resistance, but
we may need to study a circuit when its load is
removed, i.e. when RL = ∞
• Important V ≠ 0 in an open circuit.
• From the above, I = 0 regardless of the value of V

Fundamentals of Electric 22
al Circuits
 SERIES CONNECTED SOURCES

• Series connected
sources are when two or
more voltage sources are
connected in series
• To the right, we have a
series aiding E 1
E
configuration, where the 1 - +
E 1+ E E 1+ E
net effect of the sources +
2
-
2

are equivalent to that of a E 2

E 2
single source, whose
voltage equals the sum of
the two sources
• Here to the right, we have
a series opposing
configuration. Current is E 1 E 1
produced in opposite + -
directions, and the net E 1-E 2 E 1-E 2
effect on the circuit is the - +
E 2
same as a single voltage E 2
source whose magnitude
equals the difference in the
sources. Here E1>E2.

Fundamentals of Electric 23
al Circuits
 VOLTAGE DIVIDER RULE

R 1

+
V IN -

R 2 V O U T

• Consider the above circuit, where the total current flow

is I = VIN / RT = VIN / (R1+R2)
• The sum of the voltage drops across each resistor is
equal to the source voltage VIN = IR1 + IR2 = V1 + V2
• V2 is the same as VOUT
• Substituting, we get:
• VIN = (VIN R1)/ (R1+R2) + (VIN R2)/ (R1+R2)
• VIN = V1 + V2; the voltage drops have been calculated
without knowledge of I
• This is the voltage divider rule Vx = VIN × Rx / RT
• We can use potentiometers to adjust resistance. Also
known as a variable resistor and will affect the voltage
drop

Fundamentals of Electric 24
al Circuits
 VOLTAGE DIVIDER RULE
EXAMPLES

• Use the voltage divider rule to find voltages Vab and Vac
in the circuit below.
a b

100Ω 200Ω

36V 150Ω

50Ω c

• A certain electronic device is activated when a voltage

level of 5V ±10% is applied to it. In one application
where it is used, the only DC power available is a 24V
source.
a) Design a voltage divider that will provide the required
activation voltage across a resistor, which must not
draw more than 10mA from the source.
b) Assuming that only standard value resistors having
5% tolerance can be used, draw a schematic of the
final design, and verify that the design criteria are met.

Fundamentals of Electric 25
al Circuits
 PARALLEL CIRCUITS

• When two components are connected in parallel,

they have two common terminals

• Every parallel – connected component has the

same voltage across it

• To calculate resistances in parallel

1 1 1 1 1
    
RT R1 R2 R3 Rn

• Conductance of resistors in parallel:

• GT = G1+…+Gn
• GT = 1/RT and is measured in Siemens

Fundamentals of Electric 26
al Circuits
 PARALLEL CIRCUITS EXAMPLE

• In the circuit below, find the current in each resistor.

What is the circuit’s total resistance? What is its total
conductance? What is the total current flow in the
circuit?

I1 ↓ I2 ↓ I3 ↓ I4 ↓
E= R1= R2= R3 = R4=
32V 1.6kΩ 320Ω 100kΩ 4kΩ

Fundamentals of Electric 27
al Circuits
 KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW

• The sum of all currents entering a junction, or any

portion of a circuit, equals the sum of currents
leaving the same

I4 I3
I 5  I 4  I 3  I 2  I1
I5
I2
I1

• Kirchhoff’s current law is a useful technique for problem

solving, and it is often used to find unknown current
values, as we shall see.

Fundamentals of Electric 28
al Circuits
 KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW
EXAMPLES

• Find the current in the 150Ω resistor.

0.8A ↓
270Ω

← 0.2A 0.1A →

100Ω 330Ω
150Ω

• Find the currents I1, I2, I3, and I4.

I3 I2 I1
→ → →

48V 12kΩ 8kΩ 9.6kΩ

←
I4

Fundamentals of Electric 29
al Circuits
 THE CURRENT DIVIDER RULE
R I

+
KCL states that I = I1+I2
V I1 I2
- Parallel: V = I1R1 = I2R2
R R
So I1=V/R1 and I2=V/R2
1 2

• The current I entering the junction of two parallel

resistors divides into two paths. The smaller the
resistance of a path, the greater its share of the total
current
• Because of the parallel nature of the circuit
R1 R2 RR
RT   V  IRT  I 1 2
R1  R2 R1  R2
• Using the above, we get
I1  IR2 R1  R2 ; I 2  IR1 R1  R2
• Generally, current divider rule when current I enters a
junction of an arbitrary number of parallel resistors is
Ix=IRT / Rx

Fundamentals of Electric 30
al Circuits
 THE CURRENT DIVIDER RULE
EXAMPLES

• Find the current in the 470Ω resistor using the current

divider rule. Find the current in the 330Ω resistor using
the current divider rule, and verify the result using
Kirchhoff’s current law.
R1 = 470Ω

→
160mA I1
→
I2
→

R2 = 330Ω

• What should the value of R be in the circuit below if the

current in it must be 0.1A?

↓ 0.1A

0.4A 30Ω 60Ω R

Fundamentals of Electric 31
al Circuits
 SHORT CIRCUITS

• A short circuit is a path of zero resistance

• R=0
• When a component is short circuited, all current is diverted
through the path that shorts it
• This follows on from the fact that on encountering a junction,
most current will flow through the path with the least resistance
• Short circuiting techniques may be useful when analysing
circuits. We shall see this later on

ISS = I

I I

IR = 0

Fundamentals of Electric 32
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