3.1 Cells The Living Units

Chapter 3 Part A
Cells:
The Living
Units
PowerPoint® Lecture Slides

prepared by
Karen Dunbar Kareiva
© Annie Leibovitz/Contact Press Images
© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Ivy Tech Community College
Why This Matters
• Understanding the structure of the body’s cells

explains why the permeability of the plasma
membrane can affect treatment
© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

3.1 Cells: The Living Units
• Cell theory
– A cell is the structural and functional unit of life
– How well the entire organism functions depends
on individual and combined activities of all of its
cells
– Structure and function are complementary
• Biochemical functions of cells are dictated by shape of
cell and specific subcellular structures
– Continuity of life has cellular basis
• Cells can arise only from other preexisting cells

• Cell diversity
– Over 200 different types of human cells
– Types differ in size, shape, and subcellular
components; these differences lead to
differences in functions

Figure 3.1 Cell diversity.
Erythrocytes
Fibroblasts
Skeletal
muscle Smooth
cell muscle cells
Epithelial cells
Cells that connect body parts, form linings, Cells that move organs and body parts
or transport gases
Macrophage
Fat cell
Nerve cell
Cell that stores Cell that fights Cell that gathers information and controls
nutrients disease body functions
Sperm
Cell of reproduction

• Generalized cell
– All cells have some common structures and
functions
– Human cells have three basic parts:
1. Plasma membrane: flexible outer boundary
2. Cytoplasm: intracellular fluid containing organelles
3. Nucleus: DNA containing control center

Figure 3.2 Structure of the generalized cell.
Chromatin Nuclear envelope

Nucleolus
Nucleus
Plasma
Smooth endoplasmic
membrane
reticulum
Cytoplasm
Mitochondrion
Lysosome
Centrioles
Rough
Centrosome endoplasmic
matrix reticulum
Ribosomes
Golgi apparatus
Secretion being
Cytoskeletal released from cell
elements by exocytosis
• Microtubule
• Intermediate
filaments Peroxisome

Extracellular Materials
• Substances found outside cells

• Classes of extracellular materials include:
– Extracellular fluids (body fluids), such as:
• Interstitial fluid: cells are submersed (bathed) in this
fluid
• Blood plasma: fluid of the blood
• Cerebrospinal fluid: fluid surrounding nervous system
organs
– Cellular secretions (e.g., saliva, mucus)
– Extracellular matrix: substance that acts as glue
to hold cells together
Part 1 – Plasma Membrane
• Acts as an active barrier separating

intracellular fluid (ICF) from extracellular fluid
(ECF)
• Plays dynamic role in cellular activity by
controlling what enters and what leaves cell
• Also known as the “cell membrane”

3.2 Structure of Plasma Membrane
• Consists of membrane lipids that form a

flexible lipid bilayer
• Specialized membrane proteins float through
this fluid membrane, resulting in constantly
changing patterns
– Referred to as fluid mosaic (made up of many
pieces) pattern
• Surface sugars form glycocalyx
• Membrane structures help to hold cells together
through cell junctions

Figure 3.3 The plasma membrane.
Extracellular fluid
(watery environment
outside cell)
Cholesterol
Polar head of
Glycolipid Glycoprotein
phospholipid
molecule
Nonpolar tail
of phospholipid
Glycocalyx molecule
(carbohydrates)
Lipid bilayer
containing proteins
Outward-facing
layer of
phospholipids
Inward-facing layer
of phospholipids
Functions of the
Plasma Membrane:
• Mechanical barrier: Separates two
of the body’s fluid compartments.
• Selective permeability: Determines Filament of
manner in which substances enter cytoskeleton
or exit the cell. Integral Peripheral
• Electrochemical gradient: proteins proteins
Generates and helps to maintain
the electrochemical gradient required
for muscle and neuron function.
• Communication: Allows cell-to-cell recognition
(e.g., of egg by sperm) and interaction. Cytoplasm
• Cell signaling: Plasma membrane proteins (watery environment
interact with specific chemical messengers inside cell)
and relay messages to the cell interior.
Membrane Lipids
• Lipid bilayer is made up of:

– 75% phospholipids, which consist of two parts:
• Phosphate heads: are polar (charged), so are
hydrophilic (water-loving)
• Fatty acid tails: are nonpolar (no charge), so are
hydrophobic (water-hating)
– 5% glycolipids
• Lipids with sugar groups on outer membrane surface
– 20% cholesterol
• Increases membrane stability

Membrane Proteins
• Allow cell communication with environment

• Make up about half the mass of plasma
membrane
• Most have specialized membrane functions
• Some float freely, and some are tethered to
intracellular structures
• Two types:
– Integral proteins; peripheral proteins

Membrane Proteins (cont.)
• Integral proteins
– Firmly inserted into membrane
– Most are transmembrane proteins (span
membrane)
– Have both hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions
• Hydrophobic areas interact with lipid tails
• Hydrophilic areas interact with water
– Function as transport proteins (channels and
carriers), enzymes, or receptors

Membrane Proteins (cont.)
• Peripheral proteins
– Loosely attached to integral proteins
– Include filaments on intracellular surface used for
plasma membrane support
– Function as:
• Enzymes
• Motor proteins for shape change during cell division
and muscle contraction
• Cell-to-cell connections

Figure 3.4 Membrane proteins perform many tasks.
Transport Enzymatic activity

• A protein (left) that spans the membrane Enzymes • A membrane protein may be an enzyme
may provide a hydrophilic channel across with its active site exposed to substances
the membrane that is selective for a in the adjacent solution.
particular solute. • A team of several enzymes in a membrane
• Some transport proteins (right) hydrolyze may catalyze sequential steps of a
ATP as an energy source to actively pump metabolic pathway as indicated (left to
substances across the membrane. right) here.
ATP
Signal Receptors for signal transduction Intercellular joining

• A membrane protein exposed to the • Membrane proteins of adjacent cells may
outside of the cell may have a binding site be hooked together in various kinds of
that fits the shape of a specific chemical intercellular junctions.
messenger, such as a hormone. • Some membrane proteins (cell adhesion
• When bound, the chemical messenger molecules or CAMs) of this group provide
temporary binding sites that guide cell
may cause a change in shape in the migration and other cell-to-cell
protein that initiates a chain of chemical interactions.
reactions in the cell.
Receptor
CAMs
Attachment to the cytoskeleton Cell-cell recognition

and extracellular matrix
• Some glycoproteins (proteins bonded to
• Elements of the cytoskeleton (cell’s internal short chains of sugars which help to make
supports) and the extracellular matrix up the glycocalyx) serve as identification
(fibers and other substances outside the tags that are specifically recognized by
cell) may anchor to membrane proteins, other cells.
which helps maintain cell shape and fix the
location of certain membrane proteins.
• Others play a role in cell movement or bind
adjacent cells together.
Glycoprotein

Figure 3.4a Membrane proteins perform many tasks.
Transport
• A protein (left) that spans the membrane
may provide a hydrophilic channel across
the membrane that is selective for a
particular solute.
• Some transport proteins (right) hydrolyze
ATP as an energy source to actively pump
substances across the membrane.
ATP

Figure 3.4b Membrane proteins perform many tasks.
Signal Receptors for signal transduction

• A membrane protein exposed to the
outside of the cell may have a binding site
that fits the shape of a specific chemical
messenger, such as a hormone.
• When bound, the chemical messenger
may cause a change in shape in the
protein that initiates a chain of chemical
reactions in the cell.
Receptor

Figure 3.4c Membrane proteins perform many tasks.
Attachment to the cytoskeleton

and extracellular matrix
• Elements of the cytoskeleton (cell’s internal
supports) and the extracellular matrix
(fibers and other substances outside the
cell) may anchor to membrane proteins,
which helps maintain cell shape and fix the
location of certain membrane proteins.
• Others play a role in cell movement or bind
adjacent cells together.

Figure 3.4d Membrane proteins perform many tasks.
Enzymatic activity
Enzymes • A membrane protein may be an enzyme
with its active site exposed to substances
in the adjacent solution.
• A team of several enzymes in a membrane
may catalyze sequential steps of a
metabolic pathway as indicated (left to
right) here.

Figure 3.4e Membrane proteins perform many tasks.
Intercellular joining
• Membrane proteins of adjacent cells may
be hooked together in various kinds of
intercellular junctions.
• Some membrane proteins (cell adhesion
molecules or CAMs) of this group provide
temporary binding sites that guide cell
migration and other cell-to-cell
interactions.
CAMs

Figure 3.4f Membrane proteins perform many tasks.
Cell-cell recognition
• Some glycoproteins (proteins bonded to
short chains of sugars which help to make
up the glycocalyx) serve as identification
tags that are specifically recognized by
other cells.
Glycoprotein

Glycocalyx
• Consists of sugars (carbohydrates) sticking out

of cell surface
– Some sugars are attached to lipids (glycolipids)
and some to proteins (glycoproteins)
• Every cell type has different patterns of this
“sugar coating”
– Functions as specific biological markers for cell-
to-cell recognition
– Allows immune system to recognize “self” vs.
“nonself”

Clinical – Homeostatic Imbalance 3.1
• Glycocalyx of some cancer cells can change so

rapidly that the immune system cannot recognize
the cell as being damaged.
• Mutated cell is not destroyed by immune system so
it is able to replicate

Cell Junctions
• Some cells are “free” (not bound to any other

cells)
– Examples: blood cells, sperm cells
• Most cells are bound together to form tissues
and organs
• Three ways cells can be bound to each other
– Tight junctions
– Desmosomes
– Gap junctions

Cell Junctions (cont.)
• Tight junctions
– Integral proteins on adjacent cells fuse to form
an impermeable junction that encircles whole
cell
– Prevent fluids and most molecules from moving
in between cells
– Where might these be useful in body?

Figure 3.5a Cell junctions.
Plasma membranes Microvilli
of adjacent cells
Intercellular
space
Basement membrane
Interlocking
junctional
proteins
Intercellular
space
Tight junctions: Impermeable

junctions that form continuous
seals around the cells prevent
molecules from passing through
the intercellular space.
• Desmosomes
– Rivet-like cell junction formed when linker
proteins (cadherins) of neighboring cells interlock
like the teeth of a zipper
– Linker protein is anchored to its cell through
thickened “button-like” areas on inside of plasma
membrane called plaques
– Keratin filaments connect plaques intercellularly
for added anchoring strength
– Desmosomes allow “give” between cells,
reducing the possibility of tearing under tension
– Where might these be useful in body?
Figure 3.5b Cell junctions.
of adjacent cells
Intercellular
space
Basement membrane
Intercellular space
Plaque
Linker
proteins
Intermediate
(cadherins)
filament (keratin)
Desmosomes: Anchoring junctions
that bind adjacent cells together act
like molecular “Velcro” and also help
form an internal tension-reducing
network of fibers.
• Gap junctions
– Transmembrane proteins (connexons) form
tunnels that allow small molecules to pass from
cell to cell
– Used to spread ions, simple sugars, or other
small molecules between cells
– Allows electrical signals to be passed quickly
from one cell to next cell
• Used in cardiac and smooth muscle cells

Figure 3.5c Cell junctions.
of adjacent cells
Intercellular
space
Basement membrane
Intercellular
space
Channel
between cells
(formed by
connexons)
Gap junctions: Communicating

junctions that allow ions and small
molecules to pass are particularly
important for communication in
heart cells and embryonic cells.
How do substances move across the plasma
membrane?
• Plasma membranes are selectively permeable
– Some molecules pass through easily; some do
not
• Two ways substances cross membrane
– Passive processes: no energy required
– Active processes: energy (ATP) required

3.3 Passive Membrane Transport
• Passive transport requires no energy

• Two types of passive transport
– Diffusion
• Simple diffusion
• Carrier- and channel-mediated facilitated diffusion
• Osmosis
– Filtration
• Type of transport that usually occurs across capillary
walls

Diffusion
• Collisions between molecules in areas of high

concentration cause them to be scattered into
areas with less concentration
– Difference is called concentration gradient
– Diffusion is movement of molecules down their
concentration gradients (from high to low)
• Energy is not required
• Speed of diffusion is influenced by size of
molecule and temperature

Figure 3.6 Diffusion.
Dye pellet Diffusion occurring Dye evenly distributed

Diffusion (cont.)
• Molecules have natural drive to diffuse down

concentration gradients that exist between
extracellular and intracellular areas
• Plasma membranes stop diffusion and create
concentration gradients by acting as selectively
permeable barriers

• If plasma membrane is severely damaged,

substances diffuse freely into and out of cell,
compromising concentration gradients
• Example: burn patients lose precious fluids,
proteins, and ions that weep from damaged
cells

Diffusion (cont.)
• Nonpolar, hydrophobic lipid core of plasma

membrane blocks diffusion of most molecules
• Molecules that are able to passively diffuse
through membrane include:
– Lipid-soluble and nonpolar substances
– Very small molecules that can pass through
membrane or membrane channels
– Larger molecules assisted by carrier molecules

Diffusion (cont.)
• Simple diffusion
– Nonpolar lipid-soluble (hydrophobic) substances
diffuse directly through phospholipid bilayer
– Examples: oxygen, carbon dioxide, fat-soluble
vitamins

Figure 3.7a Diffusion through the plasma membrane.
Extracellular fluid
Lipid-
soluble
solutes
Cytoplasm
Simple diffusion
of fat-soluble
molecules directly
through the
phospholipid bilayer
Diffusion (cont.)
• Facilitated diffusion
– Certain hydrophobic molecules (e.g., glucose,
amino acids, and ions) are transported passively
down their concentration gradient by:
• Carrier-mediated facilitated diffusion
– Substances bind to protein carriers
• Channel-mediated facilitated diffusion
– Substances move through water-filled channels

Diffusion (cont.)
• Carrier-mediated facilitated diffusion

– Carriers are transmembrane integral proteins
– Carriers transport specific polar molecules, such
as sugars and amino acids, that are too large for
membrane channels
• Example of specificity: glucose carriers will carry only
glucose molecules, nothing else
– Binding of molecule causes carrier to change
shape, moving molecule in process
– Binding is limited by number of carriers present
• Carriers are saturated when all are bound to
molecules and are busy transporting
Figure 3.7b Diffusion through the plasma membrane.
Lipid-insoluble solutes
(such as sugars or
amino acids)
Shape
change
releases
solutes
Carrier-mediated facilitated
diffusion via protein carrier
specific for one chemical; binding
of substrate causes transport
protein to change shape
Diffusion (cont.)
• Channel-mediated facilitated diffusion

– Channels with aqueous-filled cores are formed by
transmembrane proteins
– Channels transport molecules such as ions or water
(osmosis) down their concentration gradient
• Specificity based on pore size and/or charge
• Water channels are called aquaporins
– Two types:
• Leakage channels
– Always open
• Gated channels
– Controlled by chemical or electrical signals
Figure 3.7c Diffusion through the plasma membrane.
Small lipid-
insoluble
solutes
Channel-mediated
facilitated diffusion
through a channel
protein; mostly ions
selected on basis of
size and charge
Diffusion (cont.)
• Osmosis
– Movement of solvent, such as water, across a
selectively permeable membrane
– Water diffuses through plasma membranes
• Through lipid bilayer (even though water is polar, it is
so small that some molecules can sneak past
nonpolar phospholipid tails)
• Through specific water channels called aquaporins
(AQPs)
– Flow occurs when water (or other solvent)
concentration is different on the two sides of a
membrane
Figure 3.7d Diffusion through the plasma membrane.
Water
molecules
Lipid
bilayer
Aquaporin
Osmosis, diffusion of
a solvent such as water
through a specific
channel protein
(aquaporin) or through
the lipid bilayer
Diffusion (cont.)
• Osmolarity: measure of total concentration of

solute particles
• Water concentration varies with number of
solute particles because solute particles
displace water molecules
– When solute concentration goes up, water
concentration goes down, and vice versa
• Water moves by osmosis from areas of low
solute (high water) concentration to high areas
of solute (low water) concentration

Diffusion (cont.)
• When solutions of different osmolarity are

separated by a membrane permeable to all
molecules, both solutes and water cross
membrane until equilibrium is reached
– Equilibrium: Same concentration of solutes and
water molecules on both sides, with equal
volume on both sides

Figure 3.8a Influence of membrane permeability on diffusion and osmosis.
Membrane permeable to both solutes and water

Solute and water molecules move down their concentration gradients in
opposite directions. Fluid volume remains the same in both compartments.
Left Right
compartment: compartment:
Solution with Solution with Both solutions have the
lower osmolarity greater osmolarity same osmolarity: volume
unchanged
H2O
Solute
Freely Solute
permeable molecules
membrane (sugar)

Diffusion (cont.)
• When solutions of different osmolarity are

separated by a membrane that is permeable
only to water, not solutes, osmosis will occur
until equilibrium is reached
– Same concentration of solutes and water
molecules on both sides, with unequal volumes
on both sides

Figure 3.8b Influence of membrane permeability on diffusion and osmosis.
Membrane permeable to water, impermeable to solutes

Solute molecules are prevented from moving but water moves by osmosis.
Volume increases in the compartment with the higher osmolarity.
Both solutions have identical
osmolarity, but volume of the
solution on the right is greater
Left Right because only water is
compartment compartment free to move
H2O
Selectively Solute
permeable molecules
membrane (sugar)

Diffusion (cont.)
• Movement of water causes pressures:

– Hydrostatic pressure: pressure of water inside
cell pushing on membrane
– Osmotic pressure: tendency of water to move
into cell by osmosis
• The more solutes inside a cell, the higher the osmotic
pressure

Diffusion (cont.)
• A living cell has limits to how much water can enter

it
• Water can also leave a cell, causing cell to shrink
• Change in cell volume can disrupt cell function,
especially in neurons

Diffusion (cont.)
• Tonicity
– Ability of a solution to change the shape or tone
of cells by altering the cells’ internal water
volume
• Isotonic solution has same osmolarity as inside the
cell, so volume remains unchanged
• Hypertonic solution has higher osmolarity than
inside cell, so water flows out of cell, resulting in cell
shrinking
– Shrinking is referred to as crenation
• Hypotonic solution has lower osmolarity than inside
cell, so water flows into cell, resulting in cell swelling
– Can lead to cell bursting, referred to as lysing
Figure 3.9 The effect of solutions of varying tonicities on living red blood cells.
Isotonic solutions Hypertonic solutions Hypotonic solutions

Cells retain their normal size and Cells lose water by osmosis and Cells take on water by osmosis
shape in isotonic solutions (same shrink in a hypertonic solution until they become bloated and
solute/water concentration as (contains a higher concentration burst (lyse) in a hypotonic
inside cells; water moves in of nonpenetrating solutes than solution (contains a lower
and out). are present inside the cells). concentration of nonpenetrating
solutes than are present
inside cells).

• Intravenous solutions of different tonicities can

be given to patients suffering different ailments
– Isotonic solutions are most commonly given
when blood volume needs to be increased
quickly
– Hypertonic solutions are given to edematous
(swollen) patients to pull water back into blood
– Hypotonic solutions should not be given because
they can result in dangerous lysing of red and
white blood cells

3.1 Cells The Living Units

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3.1 Cells The Living Units

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Chapter 3 Part A

PowerPoint® Lecture Slides

• Understanding the structure of the body’s cells

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chromatin Nuclear envelope

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

• Substances found outside cells

• Acts as an active barrier separating

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

• Consists of membrane lipids that form a

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

• Lipid bilayer is made up of:

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

• Allow cell communication with environment

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

Transport Enzymatic activity

Signal Receptors for signal transduction Intercellular joining

Attachment to the cytoskeleton Cell-cell recognition

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

Signal Receptors for signal transduction

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

Attachment to the cytoskeleton

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

• Consists of sugars (carbohydrates) sticking out

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

• Glycocalyx of some cancer cells can change so

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

• Some cells are “free” (not bound to any other

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

Tight junctions: Impermeable

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

Gap junctions: Communicating

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

• Passive transport requires no energy

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

• Collisions between molecules in areas of high

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

Dye pellet Diffusion occurring Dye evenly distributed

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

• Molecules have natural drive to diffuse down

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

• If plasma membrane is severely damaged,

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

• Nonpolar, hydrophobic lipid core of plasma

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

• Carrier-mediated facilitated diffusion

• Channel-mediated facilitated diffusion

• Osmolarity: measure of total concentration of

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

• When solutions of different osmolarity are

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.