Chapter 3 Part C

Cells:
The Living
Units

PowerPoint® Lecture Slides

prepared by
Karen Dunbar Kareiva
© Annie Leibovitz/Contact Press Images
© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Ivy Tech Community College
 Part 2 – Cytoplasm

• All cellular material that is located between the

plasma membrane and the nucleus
– Composed of:
• Cytosol: gel-like solution made up of water and
soluble molecules such as proteins, salts, sugars, etc.
• Inclusions: insoluble molecules; vary with cell type
(examples: glycogen granules, pigments, lipid
droplets, vacuoles, crystals)
• Organelles: metabolic machinery structures of cell;
each with specialized function; either membranous or
nonmembranous

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 3.7 Cytoplasmic Organelles

• Membranous • Nonmembranous
– Mitochondria – Ribosomes
– Endoplasmic – Cytoskeleton
reticulum – Centrioles
– Golgi apparatus
– Peroxisomes
– Lysosomes

Membranes allow compartmentalization, which is

crucial to cell functioning

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 Mitochondria

• Called the “power plant” of cells because they

produce most of cell’s energy molecules (ATP) via
aerobic (oxygen-requiring) cellular respiration
• Enclosed by double membranes; inner membrane
has many folds, called cristae
– Cristae are embedded with membrane proteins that play
a role in cellular respiration
• Mitochondria contain their own DNA, RNA, and
ribosomes
• Resemble bacteria; capable of same type of cell
division bacteria use, called fission

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Figure 3.15 Mitochondrion.

Outer
mitochondrial
membrane
Ribosome

Mitochondrial
DNA
Inner
mitochondrial
membrane
Cristae
Matrix

Enzymes

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 Ribosomes

• Nonmembranous organelles that are site of

protein synthesis
• Made up of protein and ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
• Two switchable forms found in cell:
– Free ribosomes: free floating; site of synthesis
of soluble proteins that function in cytosol or
other organelles
– Membrane-bound ribosomes: attached to
membrane of endoplasmic reticulum (ER); site of
synthesis of proteins to be incorporated into
membranes or lysosomes, or exported from cell
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 Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

• Consists of series of parallel, interconnected

cisterns—flattened membranous tubes that
enclose fluid-filled interiors
• ER is continuous with outer nuclear membrane
• Two varieties:
– Rough ER
– Smooth ER

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Figure 3.16 The endoplasmic reticulum.

Nucleus

Smooth ER

Nuclear
envelope

Rough ER

Ribosomes

Diagrammatic view of smooth and Electron micrograph of smooth

rough ER and rough ER (25,000)

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 Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) (cont.)

• Rough ER
– External surface appears rough because it is
studded with attached ribosomes
• Site of synthesis of proteins that will be secreted from
cell
• Site of synthesis of many plasma membrane proteins
and phospholipids
– Proteins enter cisterns as they are synthesized
and are modified as they wind through fluid-filled
tubes
– Final protein is enclosed in vesicle and sent to
Golgi apparatus for further processing
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 Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) (cont.)

• Smooth ER
– Network of looped tubules continuous with rough ER
– Enzymes found in its plasma membrane (integral
proteins) function in:
• Lipid metabolism; cholesterol and steroid-based
hormone synthesis; making lipids for lipoproteins
• Absorption, synthesis, and transport of fats
• Detoxification of certain chemicals (drugs, pesticides,
etc.)
• Converting of glycogen to free glucose
• Storage and release of calcium
– Sarcoplasmic reticulum is specialized smooth ER found
in skeletal and cardiac muscle cells
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 Golgi Apparatus

• Stacked and flattened membranous cistern sacs

• Modifies, concentrates, and packages proteins
and lipids received from rough ER
• Three steps are involved:
1. Transport vesicles from ER fuse with cis (inner)
face of Golgi
2. Proteins or lipids taken inside are further
modified, tagged, sorted, and packaged
3. Golgi is “traffic director,” controlling which of
three pathways final products will take as new
transport vesicles pinch off trans (outer) face
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Figure 3.17 Golgi apparatus.

New vesicles forming

Cis ­face—­
“receiving” side of
Transport vesicle
Golgi apparatus
from rough ER
Cisterns

New vesicles
forming
Transport
vesicle
from
trans face
Trans face—
“shipping” side of
Secretory vesicle Golgi apparatus
Newly secreted Golgi Transport vesicle at
proteins apparatus the trans face

Many vesicles in the process of pinching off Electron micrograph of the Golgi
from the Golgi apparatus apparatus (90,000)

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 Golgi Apparatus (cont.)

• Depending on its contents, final transport

vesicle can take one of three pathways:
– Pathway A: Secretory vesicles containing
proteins to be used outside of cell fuse with
plasma membrane and exocytosis contents
– Pathway B: Vesicles containing lipids or
transmembrane proteins fuse with plasma
membrane or organelle membrane, inserting
contents directly into destination membrane
– Pathway C: Lysosomes containing digestive
enzymes remain in cell, holding contents in
vesicle until needed
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Figure 3.18 The sequence of events from protein synthesis on the rough ER to the final distribution of those proteins. Slide 1

Rough ER ER membrane Phagosome Plasma

membrane
Proteins in cisterns
1 Protein-containing
vesicles pinch off
rough ER and
migrate to fuse with Pathway C:
membranes of Golgi Lysosome
apparatus. containing acid
hydrolase
2Proteins are enzymes
modified within the Vesicle becomes
Golgi compartments. lysosome

3 Proteins are then

packaged within
different vesicle types, Secretory
depending on their Golgi vesicle Pathway B:
ultimate destination. apparatus
Vesicle membrane
to be incorporated
into plasma
Pathway A: membrane
Vesicle contents Secretion by exocytosis
destined for Extracellular fluid
exocytosis

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Figure 3.18 The sequence of events from protein synthesis on the rough ER to the final distribution of those proteins. Slide 2

Rough ER ER membrane Plasma

membrane
Proteins in cisterns
1 Protein-containing
vesicles pinch off
rough ER and
migrate to fuse with
membranes of Golgi
apparatus.

Golgi
apparatus

Extracellular fluid

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Figure 3.18 The sequence of events from protein synthesis on the rough ER to the final distribution of those proteins. Slide 3

Rough ER ER membrane Phagosome Plasma

membrane
Proteins in cisterns
1 Protein-containing
vesicles pinch off
rough ER and
migrate to fuse with
membranes of Golgi
apparatus.

2Proteins are
modified within the
Golgi compartments.

Golgi
apparatus

Extracellular fluid

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Figure 3.18 The sequence of events from protein synthesis on the rough ER to the final distribution of those proteins. Slide 4

Rough ER ER membrane Phagosome Plasma

membrane
Proteins in cisterns
1 Protein-containing
vesicles pinch off
rough ER and
migrate to fuse with Pathway C:
membranes of Golgi Lysosome
apparatus. containing acid
hydrolase
2Proteins are enzymes
modified within the Vesicle becomes
Golgi compartments. lysosome

3 Proteins are then

packaged within
different vesicle types, Secretory
depending on their Golgi vesicle Pathway B:
ultimate destination. apparatus
Vesicle membrane
to be incorporated
into plasma
Pathway A: membrane
Vesicle contents Secretion by exocytosis
destined for Extracellular fluid
exocytosis

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 Peroxisomes

• Membranous sacs containing powerful

detoxifying substances that neutralize toxins
– Free radicals: toxic, highly reactive molecules
that are natural by-products of cellular
metabolism; can cause havoc to cell if not
detoxified
– Two main detoxifiers: oxidase uses oxygen to
convert toxins to hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), which
is itself toxic; however, peroxisome also contains
catalase, which converts H2O2 to harmless water
• Peroxisomes also play a role in breakdown and
synthesis of fatty acids
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 Lysosomes

• Spherical membranous bags containing

digestive enzymes (acid hydrolases)
– Considered “safe” sites because they isolate
potentially harmful intracellular digestion from
rest of cell
• Digest ingested bacteria, viruses, and toxins
• Degrade nonfunctional organelles
• Metabolic functions: break down and release
glycogen; break down and release Ca2+ from
bone
• Intracellular release in injured causes cells to
digest themselves (autolysis)
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Figure 3.19 Electron micrograph of lysosomes (20,000).

Lysosomes

Light green areas are

regions where materials
are being digested.
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 Clinical – Homeostatic Imbalance 3.4

• Lysosomal storage diseases result when one or

more lysosomal digestive enzymes are mutated
and do not function properly
• Tay-Sachs disease is a condition in which the
patient lacks a lysosomal enzyme needed to
break down glycolipids in brain cells
– Glycolipids build up as a result of this defect,
interfering with nervous system functioning
– Seen predominantly in infants of Central
European Jewish descent
– Causes seizures, mental retardation, blindness,
and death before age 5
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 Endomembrane System

• Consists of membranous organelles discussed

so far (ER, Golgi apparatus, secretory vesicles,
and lysosomes), as well as the nuclear and
plasma membranes
• These membranes and organelles work
together to:
1. Produce, degrade, store, and export biological
molecules
2. Degrade potentially harmful substances

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Figure 3.20 The endomembrane system.

Nuclear
Nucleus envelope

Smooth ER

Rough ER

Golgi
Secretory apparatus
vesicle
Transport
Plasma vesicle
membrane Lysosome
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 Cytoskeleton

• Elaborate network of rods that run throughout

cytosol
• Hundreds of different kinds of proteins link rods
to other cell structures
• Also act as cell’s “bones, ligaments, and
muscle” by playing a role in movement of cell
components
• Three types:
– Microfilaments
– Intermediate filaments
– Microtubules
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 Cytoskeleton (cont.)

• Microfilaments
– Thinnest of all cytoskeletal elements
– Semi-flexible strands of protein actin
– Each cell has a unique arrangement of strands,
although share common terminal web
• Dense, cross-linked network of microfilaments
attached to cytoplasmic side of plasma membrane
• Strengthens cell surface and helps to resist
compression
– Some are involved in cell motility, changes in cell
shape, or endocytosis and exocytosis

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Figure 3.21a Cytoskeletal elements support the cell and help to generate movement.

Microfilaments
Strands made of spherical
protein subunits called actin

Actin subunit

7 nm

Microfilaments form the blue

batlike network in this photo.

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 Cytoskeleton (cont.)

• Intermediate filaments
– Size is in between microfilaments and
microtubules
– Tough, insoluble, ropelike protein fibers
– Composed of tetramer (4) fibrils twisted together,
resulting in one strong fiber
– Help cell resist pulling forces
• Filaments attach to desmosome plaques and act as
internal guy-wires
– Some have special names
• Called neurofilaments in nerve cells and keratin
filaments in epithelial cells
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Figure 3.21b Cytoskeletal elements support the cell and help to generate movement.

Intermediate filaments
Tough, insoluble protein fibers
constructed like woven ropes
composed of tetramer (4) fibrils

Tetramer subunits

10 nm

Intermediate filaments form the

lavender network surrounding the
pink nucleus in this photo.
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 Cytoskeleton (cont.)

• Microtubules
– Largest of cytoskeletal elements; consist of
hollow tubes composed of protein subunits
called tubulins, which are constantly being
assembled and disassembled
• Most radiate from centrosome area of cell
– Determine overall shape of cell and distribution
of organelles
• Many organelles are tethered to microtubules to keep
organelles in place
• Many substances are moved throughout cell by motor
proteins, which use microtubules as tracks
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Figure 3.21c Cytoskeletal elements support the cell and help to generate movement.

Microtubules
Hollow tubes of spherical
protein subunits called tubulin

Tubulin subunits

25 nm

Microtubules appear as gold

networks surrounding the cells’
pink nuclei in this photo.
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 Cytoskeleton (cont.)

– Motor proteins: complexes that function in

motility
• Can help in movement of organelles and other
substances around cell
• Use microtubules as tracks to move their cargo on
• Powered by ATP

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 Centrosome and Centrioles

• Centrosome, which is located near the nucleus,

means “cell center”
• It is a microtubule organizing center, consisting
of a granular matrix and centrioles—a pair of
barrel-shaped microtubular organelles that lie at
right angles to each other
• Newly assembled microtubules radiate from
centrosome to rest of cell
– Some microtubules aid in cell division, and some
form cytoskeletal track system
• Centrioles form the basis of cilia and flagella
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Figure 3.22a Centrioles.

Centrosome matrix

Centrioles

Microtubules
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Figure 3.22b Centrioles.

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 3.8 Cellular Extensions

• Certain cells have structures extending from the

cell surface:
– Cilia and flagella aid in the movement of the cell
or of materials across the surface of the cell
– Microvilli are fingerlike projections that extend
from the surface of the cell to increase surface
area

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 Cilia and Flagella

• Cilia are whiplike, motile extensions on surfaces

of certain cells (such as respiratory cells)
– Thousands of cilia work together in sweeping
motion to move substances (example: mucus)
across cell surfaces in one direction
• Flagella are longer extensions that propel the
whole cell (example: tail of sperm)
• Both structures are made up of microtubules
synthesized by centrioles that are called basal
bodies because they form the base of each
cilium and flagellum
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 Cilia and Flagella (cont.)

• Cilia and flagella have “9 + 2” pattern of

microtubules (9 sets of double tubes
surrounding a central pair of doublets).
– Slightly different from 9 + 0 pattern of centriole
(9 triplets with no tubules in center)
• Cilia movements alternate between power
stroke and recovery stroke; this alteration
produces a current at cell surface that moves
substances forward

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Figure 3.23 Structure of a cilium.

Outer microtubules
doublet

Dynein The doublets also

arms have attached
motor proteins,
Central the dynein arms.
microtubule
Cross-linking
protein between
outer doublets The “9 + 2”
pattern:
Radial spoke microtubule
A cross section through the
cilium shows the “9 + 2” doublets encircle
arrangement of microtubules. two central
microtubules.
Microtubules are
Cross-linking held together by
proteins between cross-linking
outer doublets proteins and
radial spokes.
Radial spoke

Plasma
Cilium
membrane
Triplet

A cross section through the

basal body. The nine outer
doublets of a cilium extend Basal body
into a basal body where each (centriole)
doublet joins another
microtubule to form a ring
of nine triplets.
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Figure 3.24 Ciliary function.
Power, or Recovery stroke, when
propulsive, stroke cilium is returning to its
initial position

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Phases of ciliary motion.

Layer of mucus

Cell surface

Traveling wave created by the activity of

many cilia acting together propels mucus
across cell surfaces.
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 Microvilli

• Minute, fingerlike extensions of plasma

membrane that project from surface of select
cells (example: intestinal and kidney tubule
cells)
• Used to increase surface area for absorption
• Have a core of actin microfilaments that is used
for stiffening of projections

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Figure 3.25 Microvilli.

Microvillus

Actin
filaments

Terminal
web

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 Part 3 – Nucleus

• Largest organelle; contains the genetic library of

blueprints for synthesis of nearly all cellular
proteins
– Responds to signals that dictate the kinds and
amounts of proteins that need to be synthesized
• Most cells are uninucleate (one nucleus), but
skeletal muscle, certain bone cells, and some
liver cells are multinucleate (many nuclei)
– Red blood cells are anucleate (no nucleus)

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 3.9 Structure of the Nucleus

• The nucleus has three main structures:

– Nuclear envelope
– Nucleoli
– Chromatin

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Figure 3.26a The nucleus.

Nuclear
pores
Nuclear envelope Nucleus
Chromatin (condensed)

Nucleolus

Cisterns of rough ER

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 The Nuclear Envelope

• Double-membrane barrier that encloses the

jelly-like fluid, the nucleoplasm
– Outer layer is continuous with rough ER and, like
the rough ER, is studded with ribosomes
– Inner layer, called nuclear lamina, is a network
mesh of proteins that maintains nuclear shape
and acts as scaffolding for DNA
• Nuclear pores allow substances to pass into
and out of nucleus; they are guarded by the
nuclear pore complex, which regulates transport
of specific large molecules
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Figure 3.26b The nucleus.
Surface of nuclear envelope.

Fracture
line of outer
membrane

Nuclear
pores
Nucleus

Nuclear pore complexes. Each pore Nuclear lamina. The netlike lamina composed
Is ringed by protein particles. of intermediate filaments formed by lamins lines
the inner surface of the nuclear envelope.
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 Nucleoli

• Dark-staining spherical bodies within nucleus

that are involved in ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
synthesis and ribosome subunit assembly
• Associated with nucleolar organizer regions that
contain the DNA that codes for rRNA
• Usually one or two per cell

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 Chromatin

• Consists of 30% threadlike strands of DNA,

60% histone proteins, and 10% RNA
• Arranged in fundamental units called
nucleosomes, which consist of DNA wrapped
around histones
– Chemical alterations of histones have an effect
on DNA and therefore can help regulate gene
expression
• Chromosomes are condensed chromatin
– Condensed state helps protect fragile chromatin
threads during cell division
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Figure 3.27b Chromatin and chromosome structure.

3 Tight helical fiber

(30-nm diameter)
4Chromatid
(700-nm diameter)

5Metaphase
chromosome
(at midpoint
of cell division)
consists of two
sister chromatids

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Figure 3.26 The nucleus.
Surface of nuclear envelope.

Fracture
line of outer
membrane

Nuclear
pores
Nuclear envelope Nucleus

Chromatin (condensed)

Nucleolus

Nuclear pore complexes. Each pore is

ringed by protein particles.

Cisterns of rough ER

Nuclear lamina. The netlike lamina composed

of intermediate filaments formed by lamins lines
the inner surface of the nuclear envelope.
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