CELLS

 Cells are the building blocks/basic units of all living things

History of the Cell

Discovered by Robert Hooke
in the late 1600s, when he was
looking through a crude
microscope at some plant
tissue (cork).He saw some
cubelike structures that
reminded him of the long rows
of monk’s rooms (cells) at the
monastery, and thus named
these structures as cells.

Anatomy of the Cell

 Cells are not all the same
 All cells share general structures

 Cells are organized into three

main regions

 Nucleus
 Cytoplasm
 Plasma membrane
Nucleus (nucle = kernel)
 Located near the center of the cel
 Headquarter/control center of the cell
 Contains genetic material (DNA)
 Shape conforms to the shape of the cell
 A round or oval body that is surrounded by the nuclear envelope

Three regions:

 Nuclear
membrane/envelop
 Nucleolus
 Chromatin

Deoxyribonucleic Acid
(DNA)
 The blueprint that
contains all the
instructions needed for
building the whole body
 Has the instructions for
building proteins
 Absolutely necessary for
cell reproduction

Nucleoli (little
nuclei)
 Refers to one or more
small, darkstaining,
essentially round bodies
Nuclear Envelope/Nuclear Membrane
 Double membrane barrier of the nucleus
 Consists of a double phospholipid membrane
 Contain nuclear pores that allow for exchange of material with the
rest of the cell

Chromatin
 A loose network of bumpy threads composed of DNA and protein
 Location: scattered
throughout the nucleus
 Chromatin condenses to
form dense, rodlike
bodies called
chromosomes
when the cell divides
Plasma Membrane
 Fragile, transparent barrier
for cell contents
 Forms the outer cell
boundary

 Composed of a lipid bilayer

containing proteins

Hydrophilic (Water loving) Heads

 Polar heads of phospholipid molecules

 Attracted to water
 Lie on both the inner & outer surfaces of the membrane
Hydrophobic (Water hating) Tails
 Nonpolar tails of phospholipid molecules
 Avoid water

 Line up in the center of the plasma membrane

 Also contains protein, cholesterol, and glycoproteins
 Role of proteins
 Responsible for specialized membrane functions:
 Enzymes
 Receptors for hormones or other chemical messengers
 Transport as channels or carriers
 Role of sugars
 Glycoproteins are branched sugars attached to proteins that abut
the extracellular space
 Glycocalyx is the fuzzy, sticky, sugar rich area on the cell’s
surface
Plasma Membrane Specializations
Microvilli
 Finger-like projections that increase surface area for
absorption
 The larger its surface area, the more material can
move through the membrane per minute

 Microvilli tend to accelerate absorption

 The plasma membrane of cells specializing in

absorption have numerous microvilli

Ex: intestine

Membrane Junctions
Tight Junctions
 Are the closely associated areas of two cells whose membranes join
together forming a virtually impermeable barrier to fluid
 They hold cells togethe
Desmosomes (Macula adherens)
 A cell structure specialized for cell-tocell adhesion
 Help to resist shearing forces and are found in simple and stratified
squamous epithelium

Gap Junctions
 They directly connect the cytoplasm of two cells, which allows
various molecules, ions and electrical impulses to directly pass
through a regulated gate between cells.
Cytoplasm
 Cellular material outside the nucleus and inside the plasma
membrane

3 major elements:
1. Cytosol
 Fluid that
suspends other
elements
 The fluid in
which the
organelles of the
cytoplasm are
suspended;
 Also called the
ground substance
of the cell.
2. Organelles
 Metabolic machinery of the cell
3. Inclusions
 Non-functioning units
 Chemical substances that may or may not be present; most are
stored nutrients or cell products; includes:
a. Lipid droplets common in fat cells
b. Glycogen granules abundant in liver
cells & hair cells
c. Pigments such as melanin seen in skin d. Mucus & other
secretory products
e. Various types of crystals
Cytoplasmic Organelles
 Literally means “little organs.”

 Mitochondria
 Ribosomes
 Endoplasmic Reticulum
 Golgi Apparatus
 Lysosomes
 Peroxisomes
 Cytoskeleton
 Centrioles

Mitochondria (mitos =thread)

 Singular: mitochondrion
 Tiny threadlike or sausage-shaped organelles
 Usually they are rod-shaped, however they can be round.
 In living things, they squirm, lengthen, and change shape almost
continuously
 Consists of a double membrane (railroad track), equal to 2 plasma
membranes placed side by side, separated by a space
(intermembrane space)

a. Outer membrane – smooth and featureless

b. Inner membrane – has shelflike protrusions called cristae (crests)

 Contain enzymes that oxidize foodstuffs to produce cellular

energy- adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
 Referred to as "powerhouse of the cell"

Ribosomes

 Tiny, bilobed, dark-stained

bodies made of protein and
one variety of RNA
(ribosomal RNA)

Found in two locations:

 Floating freely in cytoplasm
 (cytosol)
 Attached to rough endoplasmic reticulum

 They are the

protein builders/
synthesizers of the
cell

 They are like

construction guys
who connect one
amino acid at a
time and build
long chains

Endoplasmic Reticulum
 Membranous system of tubules that extends throughout the
cytoplasm

 The ER is continuous with the nuclear envelope, forming a system

of channels for the transport of cellular substance (protein) from
one part of the cell to another Exist in 2 forms:
Rough ER
 Studded with ribosomes
 Tubules of rough ER provide an area for storage and transport of
the proteins made on the ribosomes to other cell areas

 External faces synthesizes phospholipids and cholesterol

Smooth ER
 It has no function in protein synthesis
 It is a site for steroid and lipid synthesis, lipid metabolism, and
drug detoxification

Ribosom
mRN
e
A
Rough ER 1 As the protein is synthesized on the
it migrates into the rough ER tunnel
ribosome,
system.
2 In the tunnel, the protein folds into
1 functional
its shape. Short sugar chains may
2 attached to the protein (forming a
3 be
glycoprotein).
Protein 3 The protein is packaged in a
membranous
tiny sac called a transport
vesicle.
4 The transport vesicle buds from the rough
Transport
vesicle buds off and
ER travels to the Golgi apparatus for
4 processing.
further

Protein
transport
inside
vesicle

 ER is the packaging and transport system of the cell

Golgi Apparatus

 Stacks of flattened sacs with bulbous ends and associated small

vesicles
 Found close to nucleus

 Within its cisterns, the protein delivered from the rough ER are
modified, segregated, and packaged into membranous vesicles
Vesicles produced will ultimately:
 Are incorporated into the plasma membrane
 Become secretory vesicles that release their contents from the cells
 Become lyzosomes

Lyzosomes
 Various-sized
membranous sacs
containing
powerful digestive
enzymes
 A product of the
packaging
activities of the
Golgi apparatus
 It contains acid
hydrolases to
digest worn-out
cell organelles
and foreign
substances that
enter the cell
  Have the capacity of total cell destruction if ruptured
 Often referred to as the "suicide sacs"
Peroxisomes

 Small lysozomes like

membranous sacs
containing oxidase
(oxygen) enzymes that
detoxify alcohol,
hydrogen peroxide,
and other harmful
chemicals

Centrioles

 Paired cylindrical bodies lie

at right angles to each other
close to the nucleus
 As part of the centrosome,
they direct the formation of
the miotic spindle during cell
division

 Form the base of cilia and

flagella

Cytoskeleton
 Provide cellular support by
forming an internal
scaffoldings
 Function also in intracellular
transport

It has 3 different types:

  Microfilament
 Intermediate filament
 Microtubules

Microfilaments:
 Ribbon or cordlike elements
 Formed largely of actin (a contractile protein), thus are important
in cell mobility, particularly in muscle cells

Intermediate Filament:
 Proteinaceous cytoskeletal elements that act as internal guy wires
to resist mechanical (pulling) forces acting on cells
Microtubules
 Slender tubules formed of proteins called tubulins
 They organize the cytoskeleton and formed the spindle during cell
division
 Formed the internal structure of the centrioles and help determine
cell shape
Cytoskeletal elements support the cell and help to generate
(a) Microfilaments (b) Intermediate filaments (c) Microtubules
Tubulin subunits
Actin subunit Fibrous subunits

7 nm 10nm 25nm

Microfilaments form the Intermediate filaments form Microtubules appear as gold

blue the purple network surrounding networks surrounding the cells’
Blue bat network. the pink nucleus. pink nuclei.
like
Parts of the cell: Structure and Function (1 of 5)

Parts of the cell: Structure and Function (2 of 5)

Parts of the cell: Structure and Function (3 of 5)

Parts of the cell: Structure and Function (4 of 5)

Parts of the cell: Structure and Function (5 of 5)

Cellular Projections

 Not found in all cells

 Use for movements

Cilia
 moves materials accross cell surface
Flagellum
 propels the cell
 Nucleus Flagellum

Sperm
(g) Cell of reproduction

Events of Cell Division

Mitosis

 The division of the copied DNA of the mother cell to 2 daughter

cells
 Results in the formation of two daughter nuclei with exactly the
same genes as the mother nucleus
Stages:
1. Prophase
2. Metaphase
3. Anaphase
4. Telophase

Interphase
 Not part of mitosis (no cell division occurs)- inactive phase
 Cell carries out normal metabolic activities and growth
 DNA is in the form of chromatin
 Nuclear envelope and nuclei are intact and visible
3 Distinct Periods
G1: The centrioles
begin replicating
S: DNA is replicated
G2: Final preparations
for mitosis are
completed and
centrioles finish
replicating

Prophase
 First part of cell division
 Chromatin condenses, forming bar-like chromosomes
(chromo= colored; soma= body)
  Each duplicated
chromosome s consists
of 2 identical threads
(sister chromatids) held
together at the
centromere
 As the chromosomes
appear, the nucleoli
disappear

 The 2 centromeres
separate from one
another and begin to
move towards opposite sides of the cell, directing the assembly
of mitotic spindle (made of microtubules) between them as
they move

Late Telophase
 The nuclear envelope breaks up, allowing the spindle to interact
with the chromosomes
 Chromosomes have attached randomly to the spindle fibers by
their centromeres (centromeres migrate to the poles
 Kinethocore microtubules pull on each chromosomes from both
poles in a tugof-war drawing the chromosomes to the center
(equator) of the cell)

Metaphase

 Chromosomes cluster and become aligned at the metaphase plate

(the center of the spindle midway between
the centrioles) so that a straight line of chromosomes is seen
 Spindle from centromeres are attached to chromosomes that are
aligned in the center of the cell

Anaphase
 The shortest phase of mitosis
 It begins abruptly as the centromeres splits simultaneousl
 Chromatids, now called chromosomes, begin to move slowly apart,
drawn toward the opposite ends of the cell

 Chromosomes are pulled by their halfcentromeres, with theirs arms

dangling behind them

 Ends when chromosome movement ends

Telophase
 Like prophase in reverse
 Identical chromosomes at opposite ends of the cell uncoil to
become threadlike chromate

 The spindle breaks down and disappears

 A nuclear envelope forms around each chromatin mass

 Nucleoli appear in each of the daughter nuclei

 A cleavage furrow (for cell division) begins to form

Cytokinesis

 Division of the cytoplasm

 Begins when mitosis is near completion

 during late anaphase and completes during telophase

 Cleavage furrow squeezes or pinches the original cytoplasmic

mass into 2 parts

 Formation of 2 daughter cells, each of which is smaller and has

 less cytoplasm than the mother cell, but is genetically identical to it

 The daughter cells grow and carry normal cell activities until it is
their turn to divide (later become the mother cells)