February 27, 2012 Chapter 7: Inside the Cell Organelle: Membrane bound Independent/Specialized Functions

Prokaryote Structure: Prokaryote Prehistoric cells, not true cells because they lack a nucleus and organelles. DNA is free floating in a circular structure. Plasmids DNA Molecules in prokaryotes. Small supercoiled, circular. Mating Defense

Binary Fission Asexual division/reproduction in prokaryotic cells Eukaryotic Structure: Eukaryote True cells that have a nucleus and organelles that help individual and specialized functions. Compartmentalization of eukaryotes offers two primary advantages 1. Separation of incompatible chemical reactions. 2. Increasing the efficiency of chemical reactions. Mitosis & Meosis Nuclear Envelope (A Transport Mechanism): The nuclear envelope has two membranes, each consisting of a lipid bilayer, and is continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum. The inside surface is linked to fibrous proteins that form a lattice-like sheet called the nuclear lamina. Stiffens the membranes structure and maintains its shape Provides attachment points for each chromosome

The envelope contains thousands of openings called nuclear pores. Function as doors into and out of the nucleus

Endomembrane System: Endomembrane System Composed of the smooth and rough ER and the Golgi apparatus, and is the primary system for protein and lipid synthesis.

Ions, ATP, amino acids, and other small molecules diffuse randomly throughout the cell, but the movement of proteins and other large molecules is energy demanding and tightly regulated. Secretory Pathway Hypothesis: Secretory Pathway Hypothesis Proposes that proteins intended for secretion from the cell are synthesized and processed in a highly prescribed set of steps. Proteins are packaged into vesicles when they move from the RER to the Golgi apparatus and from the Golgi apparatus to the cell surface. The RER and Golgi apparatus function as an integrated endomembrane system.

Signal Hypothesis: Signal Hypothesis Predicts that proteins bound for the endomembrane system have a zip code that directs the growing polypeptide to the ER. This zip code is a 20-amino-acid-long ER signal sequence.

The ER signal sequence binds to a signal recognition particle (SRP) that then binds to a receptor in the ER membrane. In the RER lumen, proteins are folded and glycosylated. Carbohydrates are attached to the protein.

***Proteins are transported from the ER to the Golgi apparatus in vesicles that bud off the ER, then fuse with the Golgi apparatus membrane and deposit their contents inside.*** Inside the Golgi Apparatus: The Golgi apparatuss composition is dynamic. New cisternae form at the cis face. Old cisternae break off from the trans face.

Protein products enter the Golgi apparatus at the cis face and pass through cisternae containing enzymes for attaching specific carbohydrate chains, before exiting on the far side (trans face) of the Golgi. Cytoskeleton: The cytoskeleton is a complex network of fibers that helps maintain cell shape by providing structural support. The cytoskeleton is dynamic; it changes to alter the cells shape, to transport materials in the cell, or to move the cell itself.

There are three types of cytoskeletal elements: 1. Actin filaments (microfilaments) Actin filaments are the smallest cytoskeletal elements. o Actin filaments form by polymerization of individual actin molecules. o Actin filaments are grouped together into long bundles or dense networks that are usually found just inside the plasma membrane and help define the cells shape. o Actin filaments can also be involved in movement by interacting with the motor protein myosin. o Actin-myosin interactions can cause cell movements such as cell crawling, cytokinesis, and cytoplasmic streaming. 2. Intermediate filaments Defined by size rather than composition. Many types of intermediate filaments exist, each consisting of a different protein. o Intermediate filaments provide structural support for the cell. They are not involved in movement. o Intermediate filaments form a flexible skeleton that helps shape the cell surface and hold the nucleus in place. 3. Microtubules Microtubules are large, hollow tubes made of tubulin dimers (two-part compounds). o Microtubules have polarity, are dynamic, and usually grow at their plus ends. Microtubules originate from the microtubule organizing center and grow outward, radiating throughout the cell. o Animal cells have just one microtubule organizing center called the centrosome. Centrosomes contain two bundles of microtubules called centrioles. Flagella & Cilia: Flagella Long, hairlike projections from the cell surface that move cells. Bacterial flagella are made of flagellin and rotate like a propeller. Eukaryotic flagella are made of microtubules and wave back and forth.

Closely related to eukaryotic flagella are cilia, which are short, filament-like projections. Cells generally have just one or two flagella but may have many cilia. The axoneme of cilia and flagella is a complex 9 + 2 arrangement of microtubules connected by links and spokes.

The axoneme attaches to the cell at a structure called the basal body.The motor protein dynein forms the arms between doublets and changes shape when ATP is hydrolyzed to walk up the microtubule. When the dynein arms on just one side of the axoneme move, cilia and flagella bend instead of elongating because the links and bridges constrain movement of the microtubule doublets.