Cells and Tissues

Concepts of the Cell Theory

• A cell is the basic structural and functional
unit of living organisms.
• The activity of an organism depends on
the collective activities of its cells.
• According to the principle of
complementarity, the biochemical activities
of cells are dictated by the relative number
of their specific subcellular structures.
• Continuity of life has a cellular basis.
 Chemical Components of Cells
• Most cells are composed of the following
four elements
– Carbon
– Hydrogen
– Oxygen
– Nitrogen
 Cells and Tissues
• Carry out all chemical activities needed to
sustain life
• Cells are the building blocks of all living
things.
• Tissues are groups of cells that are similar
in structure and function.
 Anatomy of the Cell
• Cells are not all the same.
• All cells share general structures.
• All cells have three main regions
– Nucleus
– Cytoplasm
– Plasma membrane
 Nucleus

Cytoplasm

Plasma
membrane
(a)
Figure 3.1a
 The Nucleus
• Control center of the cell
– Contains genetic material (DNA)
• Three regions
– Nuclear envelope (membrane)
– Nucleolus
– Chromatin
Nuclear envelope
Chromatin
Nucleus
Nucleolus

Nuclear
pores

Rough ER

(b)
Figure 3.1b
 The Nucleus
• Nuclear envelope (membrane)
– Barrier of the nucleus
– Consists of a double membrane
– Contains nuclear pores that allow for
exchange of material with the rest of the cell
 The Nucleus
• Nucleoli
– Nucleus contains one or more nucleoli
– Sites of ribosome assembly
– Ribosomes migrate into the cytoplasm
through nuclear pores
 The Nucleus
• Chromatin
– Composed of DNA and protein
– Present when the cell is not dividing
– Scattered throughout the nucleus
– Condenses to form chromosomes when the
cell divides
 Plasma Membrane
• Barrier for cell contents
• Double phospholipid layer
– Hydrophilic heads
– Hydrophobic tails
• Also contains proteins, cholesterol, and
glycoproteins
 Extracellular fluid Glycoprotein Glycolipid
(watery environment)
Cholesterol

Sugar
group
Polar heads of
phospholipid
molecules

Bimolecular
lipid layer
containing
proteins Channel
Nonpolar tails Proteins Filaments of
of phospholipid cytoskeleton
molecules Cytoplasm
(watery environment)

Figure 3.2
 Plasma Membrane Junctions
• Membrane junctions
– Tight junctions
• Impermeable junctions
• Bind cells together into leakproof sheets
– Desmosomes
• Anchoring junctions that prevent cells from being
pulled apart
– Gap junctions
• Allow communication between cells
Microvilli Tight
(impermeable)
junction

Desmosome
(anchoring
junction)

Plasma
membranes of
adjacent cells
Connexon

Underlying Extracellular Gap

basement space between (communicating)
membrane cells junction
Figure 3.3
 Cytoplasm
• The material outside the nucleus and
inside the plasma membrane
• Site of most cellular activities
 Cytoplasm
• Contains three major elements
– Cytosol
• Fluid that suspends other elements
– Organelles
• Metabolic machinery of the cell
• “Little organs” that perform functions for the cell
– Inclusions
• Chemical substances such as stored nutrients or
cell products
 Chromatin Nuclear envelope
Nucleolus Nucleus

Plasma
Smooth endoplasmic membrane
reticulum

Cytosol

Lysosome

Mitochondrion
Rough
endoplasmic
reticulum
Centrioles
Ribosomes

Golgi apparatus

Secretion being released

Microtubule from cell by exocytosis
Peroxisome

Intermediate
filaments
Figure 3.4
 Cytoplasmic Organelles
• Mitochondria
– “Powerhouses” of the cell
– Change shape continuously
– Carry out reactions where oxygen is used to
break down food
– Provides ATP for cellular energy
 Cytoplasmic Organelles
• Ribosomes
– Made of protein and RNA
– Sites of protein synthesis
– Found at two locations
• Free in the cytoplasm
• As part of the rough endoplasmic reticulum
 Cytoplasmic Organelles
• Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
– Fluid-filled tubules for carrying substances
– Two types of ER
• Rough endoplasmic reticulum
– Studded with ribosomes
– Synthesizes proteins
• Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
– Functions in lipid metabolism and detoxification of drugs
and pesticides
 Ribosome mRNA
1 As the protein is synthesized on the
Rough ER ribosome, it migrates into the rough ER
cistern.
2
1 3 2 In the cistern, the protein folds into its
functional shape. Short sugar chains
may be attached to the protein (forming
Protein a glycoprotein).
3 The protein is packaged in a tiny
Transport 4 membranous sac called a transport
vesicle buds off vesicle.
4 The transport vesicle buds from the
rough ER and travels to the Golgi
apparatus for further processing.
Protein inside
transport vesicle

Figure 3.5
 Ribosome mRNA
1 As the protein is synthesized on the
Rough ER ribosome, it migrates into the rough ER
cistern.
1

Protein

Figure 3.5, step 1

 Ribosome mRNA
1 As the protein is synthesized on the
Rough ER ribosome, it migrates into the rough ER
cistern.
2
1 2 In the cistern, the protein folds into its
functional shape. Short sugar chains
may be attached to the protein (forming
Protein a glycoprotein).

Figure 3.5, step 2

 Ribosome mRNA
1 As the protein is synthesized on the
Rough ER ribosome, it migrates into the rough ER
cistern.
2
1 3 2 In the cistern, the protein folds into its
functional shape. Short sugar chains
may be attached to the protein (forming
Protein a glycoprotein).
3 The protein is packaged in a tiny
Transport membranous sac called a transport
vesicle buds off vesicle.

Figure 3.5, step 3

 Ribosome mRNA
1 As the protein is synthesized on the
Rough ER ribosome, it migrates into the rough ER
cistern.
2
1 3 2 In the cistern, the protein folds into its
functional shape. Short sugar chains
may be attached to the protein (forming
Protein a glycoprotein).
3 The protein is packaged in a tiny
Transport 4 membranous sac called a transport
vesicle buds off vesicle.
4 The transport vesicle buds from the
rough ER and travels to the Golgi
apparatus for further processing.
Protein inside
transport vesicle

Figure 3.5, step 4

 Cytoplasmic Organelles
• Golgi apparatus
– Modifies and packages proteins
– Produces different types of packages
• Secretory vesicles
• Cell membrane components
• Lysosomes
Rough ER Cisterna Proteins in cisterna

Membrane Lysosome fuses with

ingested substances
Transport
vesicle
Golgi vesicle containing
digestive enzymes
becomes a lysosome
Pathway 3

Pathway 2
Golgi Golgi vesicle containing
apparatus membrane components
Secretory vesicles
Pathway 1 fuses with the plasma
Proteins membrane
Golgi vesicle containing
proteins to be secreted Plasma membrane
becomes a secretory Secretion by
vesicle exocytosis Extracellular fluid

Figure 3.6
 Cytoplasmic Organelles
• Lysosomes
– Contain enzymes produced by ribosomes
– Packaged by the Golgi apparatus
– Digest worn-out or nonusable materials within
the cell
 Cytoplasmic Organelles

• Peroxisomes
– Membranous sacs of oxidase enzymes
• Detoxify harmful substances such as alcohol and
formaldehyde
• Break down free radicals (highly reactive
chemicals)
– Replicate by pinching in half
 Cytoplasmic Organelles
• Cytoskeleton
– Network of protein structures that extend
throughout the cytoplasm
– Provides the cell with an internal framework
– Three different types of elements
• Microfilaments (largest)
• Intermediate filaments
• Microtubules (smallest)
 (a) Microfilaments (b) Intermediate filaments (c) Microtubules

Tubulin subunits
Fibrous subunits
Actin subunit

7 nm 10 nm 25 nm

Microfilaments form the blue Intermediate filaments form Microtubules appear as gold
network surrounding the pink the purple batlike network. networks surrounding the
nucleus. cells’ pink nuclei.

Figure 3.7a-c
 Cytoplasmic Organelles
• Centrioles
– Rod-shaped bodies made of microtubules
– Direct the formation of mitotic spindle during
cell division
 Cellular Projections
• Not found in all cells
– Cilia move materials across the cell surface
• Located in the respiratory system to move mucus
– Flagella propel the cell
• The only flagellated cell in the human body is
sperm
– Microvilli are tiny, fingerlike extensions of the
plasma membrane
• Increase surface area for absorption
Fibroblasts
Rough ER and Golgi
apparatus No organelles

Nucleus
Erythrocytes
(a) Cells that connect body parts

Figure 3.8a
Epithelial Nucleus
cells Intermediate
filaments

(b) Cells that cover and line body organs

Figure 3.8b
Skeletal
muscle cell Nuclei

Contractile Smooth
filaments muscle cells

(c) Cells that move organs and body parts

Figure 3.8c
Fat cell Lipid droplet

Nucleus

(d) Cell that stores

nutrients
Figure 3.8d
 Lysosomes
Macrophage

Pseudo-
pods

(e) Cell that fights

disease
Figure 3.8e
 Processes
Rough ER

Nerve cell

Nucleus

(f) Cell that gathers information and controls body

functions

Figure 3.8f
 Nucleus Flagellum

Sperm
(g) Cell of reproduction

Figure 3.8g
 Solutions and Transport
• Solution—homogeneous mixture of two or
more components
– Solvent—dissolving medium; typically water in
the body
– Solutes—components in smaller quantities
within a solution
• Intracellular fluid—nucleoplasm and
cytosol
• Interstitial fluid—fluid on the exterior of the
cell
 Selective Permeability
• The plasma membrane allows some
materials to pass while excluding others.
• This permeability influences movement
both into and out of the cell.
 Cell Physiology: Membrane
Transport
• Membrane transport—movement of
substances into and out of the cell
• Cell membranes are selectively permeable
(some substances can pass through but
others cannot)
• Two basic methods of transport
– Passive processes
• No energy is required
– Active processes
• Cell must provide metabolic energy (ATP)
 Passive Processes

• Diffusion
– Particles tend to distribute themselves evenly
within a solution
– Movement is from high concentration to low
concentration, or down a concentration
gradient
Figure 3.9
 Passive Processes
• Types of diffusion
– Simple diffusion
• An unassisted process
• Solutes are lipid-soluble materials or small enough
to pass through membrane pores
Extracellular fluid
Lipid-
soluble
solutes

Cytoplasm

(a) Simple diffusion

of fat-soluble
molecules
directly through
the phospholipid
bilayer
Figure 3.10a
 Passive Processes

• Types of diffusion (continued)

– Osmosis—simple diffusion of water
• Highly polar water molecules easily cross the
plasma membrane through aquaporins
 Water
molecules

Lipid
bilayer

(d) Osmosis, diffusion

of water through a
specific channel
protein (aquaporin)
or through the lipid
bilayer
Figure 3.10d
 Passive Processes

• Facilitated diffusion
• Substances require a protein carrier for passive
transport
• Transports lipid-insoluble and large substances
 Lipid- Small lipid-
insoluble insoluble
solutes solutes

(b) Carrier-mediated facilitated (c) Channel-mediated

diffusion via protein carrier facilitated diffusion
specific for one chemical; through a channel
binding of substrate causes protein; mostly ions
shape change in transport selected on basis
protein of size and charge
Figure 3.10b–c
 Passive Processes

• Filtration
– Water and solutes are forced through a
membrane by fluid, or hydrostatic pressure
– A pressure gradient must exist
• Solute-containing fluid is pushed from a high-
pressure area to a lower pressure area
 Active Processes
• Substances are transported that are
unable to pass by diffusion
– Substances may be too large
– Substances may not be able to dissolve in the
fat core of the membrane
– Substances may have to move against a
concentration gradient
• ATP is used for transport
 Active Processes
• Two common forms of active transport
– Active transport (solute pumping)
– Vesicular transport
• Exocytosis
• Endocytosis
– Phagocytosis
– Pinocytosis
 Active Processes
• Active transport (solute pumping)
– Amino acids, some sugars, and ions are
transported by protein carriers called solute
pumps
– ATP energizes protein carriers
– In most cases, substances are moved against
concentration gradients
Extracellular fluid
Na+
Na+ K+

Na+

Na+

Na+
K+

P K+
ATP Na+
1 2 3 K+

ADP

1 Binding of cytoplasmic 2 The shape change expels 3 Loss of phosphate

Na+ to the pump protein
stimulates phosphorylation
by ATP, which causes the
pump protein to change its
shape.
Na+ to the outside. restores the original
Extracellular K+ binds, conformation of the pump
causing release of the protein. K+ is released to the
phosphate group. cytoplasm and Na+ sites are
ready to bind Na+ again; the
cycle repeats.
Cytoplasm

Figure 3.11
Extracellular fluid

Na+

Na+

ATP Na+
1

ADP

1 Binding of cytoplasmic
Na+ to the pump protein
stimulates phosphorylation
by ATP, which causes the
pump protein to change its
shape.

Cytoplasm

Figure 3.11, step 1

Extracellular fluid
Na+
Na+ K+

Na+

Na+

Na+
K+

P
ATP Na+
1 2

ADP

1 Binding of cytoplasmic 2 The shape change expels

Na+ to the pump protein
stimulates phosphorylation
by ATP, which causes the
pump protein to change its
shape.
Na+ to the outside.
Extracellular K+ binds,
causing release of the
phosphate group.

Cytoplasm

Figure 3.11, step 2

Extracellular fluid
Na+
Na+ K+

Na+

Na+

Na+
K+

P K+
ATP Na+
1 2 3 K+

ADP

1 Binding of cytoplasmic 2 The shape change expels 3 Loss of phosphate

Na+ to the pump protein
stimulates phosphorylation
by ATP, which causes the
pump protein to change its
shape.
Na+ to the outside. restores the original
Extracellular K+ binds, conformation of the pump
causing release of the protein. K+ is released to the
phosphate group. cytoplasm and Na+ sites are
ready to bind Na+ again; the
cycle repeats.
Cytoplasm

Figure 3.11, step 3

 Active Processes

• Vesicular transport
– Exocytosis
• Moves materials out of the cell
• Material is carried in a membranous vesicle
• Vesicle migrates to plasma membrane
• Vesicle combines with plasma membrane
• Material is emptied to the outside
Extracellular Plasma
fluid membrane
SNARE
(t-SNARE)

1 The membrane-
bound vesicle
Vesicle
migrates to the
SNARE
plasma membrane.
(v-SNARE)
Molecule
to be
secreted
Secretory
vesicle Cytoplasm

Fusion pore formed

2 There,
v-SNAREs bind
with t-SNAREs, the
vesicle and plasma
membrane fuse,
Fused and a pore opens
SNAREs up.

3 Vesicle
contents are
released to the
cell exterior.

(a) The process of exocytosis

Figure 3.12a
Figure 3.12b
 Active Processes
• Vesicular transport (continued)
– Endocytosis
• Extracellular substances are engulfed by being
enclosed in a membranous vescicle
– Types of endocytosis
• Phagocytosis—“cell eating”
• Pinocytosis—“cell drinking”
Extracellular
fluid Cytosol Plasma
membrane
Vesicle Lysosome
1 Vesicle
fusing with
lysosome Release of
for digestion contents to
Ingested cytosol
substance 2 Transport to plasma
membrane and exocytosis
of vesicle contents
Detached vesicle
containing ingested
material

3 Membranes and
receptors (if present)
Pit recycled to plasma
membrane

Figure 3.13a
Extracellular
fluid Plasma
membrane

1 Vesicle
fusing with
lysosome
for digestion
Ingested
substance

Figure 3.13a, step 1

Extracellular
fluid Cytosol Plasma
membrane
Vesicle Lysosome
1 Vesicle
fusing with
lysosome Release of
for digestion contents to
Ingested cytosol
substance 2 Transport to plasma
membrane and exocytosis
of vesicle contents
Detached vesicle
containing ingested
material

Figure 3.13a, step 2

Extracellular
fluid Cytosol Plasma
membrane
Vesicle Lysosome
1 Vesicle
fusing with
lysosome Release of
for digestion contents to
Ingested cytosol
substance 2 Transport to plasma
membrane and exocytosis
of vesicle contents
Detached vesicle
containing ingested
material

3 Membranes and
receptors (if present)
Pit recycled to plasma
membrane

Figure 3.13a, step 3

 Extracellular Cytoplasm
fluid
Bacterium
or other
particle

Pseudopod

(b) Figure 3.13b

Membrane
receptor

(c)
Figure 3.13c
 Cell Life Cycle
• Cells have two major periods
– Interphase
• Cell grows
• Cell carries on metabolic processes
– Cell division
• Cell replicates itself
• Function is to produce more cells for growth and
repair processes
 DNA Replication

• Genetic material is duplicated and readies

a cell for division into two cells
• Occurs toward the end of interphase
• DNA uncoils and each side serves as a
template
 C G
T A
C G

A T
Key: G C

= Adenine C G
A T
= Thymine
= Cytosine
A T
= Guanine
G C

A T
C G
G
G C C
T A T A

A T A T
T A T A
C G C G
T A T A

G C C
G
G C C
G
T A A

Old Newly New Old (template)

(template) synthesized strand strand
strand strand forming
DNA of one chromatid Figure 3.14
 Events of Cell Division
• Mitosis—division of the nucleus
– Results in the formation of two daughter
nuclei
• Cytokinesis—division of the cytoplasm
– Begins when mitosis is near completion
– Results in the formation of two daughter cells
 Stages of Mitosis
• Prophase
– First part of cell division
– Centrioles migrate to the poles to direct
assembly of mitotic spindle fibers
– DNA appears as double-stranded
chromosomes
– Nuclear envelope breaks down and
disappears
 Stages of Mitosis

• Metaphase
– Chromosomes are aligned in the center of the
cell on the metaphase plate
 Stages of Mitosis
• Anaphase
– Chromosomes are pulled apart and toward
the opposite ends of the cell
– Cell begins to elongate
 Stages of Mitosis

• Telophase
– Chromosomes uncoil to become chromatin
– Nuclear envelope reforms around chromatin
– Spindles break down and disappear
 Stages of Mitosis
• Cytokinesis
– Begins during late anaphase and completes
during telophase
– A cleavage furrow forms to pinch the cells into
two parts
 Centrioles Chromatin Centrioles Spindle Centromere
microtubules
Forming
mitotic
spindle Centromere

Plasma Nuclear Chromosome, Fragments of Spindle

membrane envelope consisting of two nuclear envelope pole
Nucleolus sister chromatids
Interphase Early prophase Late prophase
Metaphase Nucleolus
plate forming

Cleavage
furrow

Nuclear
Spindle Sister Daughter envelope
chromatids chromosomes forming
Metaphase Anaphase Telophase and cytokinesis
Figure 3.15
 Centrioles Chromatin

Plasma Nuclear
membrane envelope
Nucleolus
Interphase Figure 3.15, step 1
 Centrioles

Forming
mitotic
spindle Centromere

Chromosome,
consisting of two
sister chromatids
Early prophase
Figure 3.15, step 2
 Spindle Centromere
microtubules

Fragments of Spindle
nuclear envelope pole

Late prophase
Figure 3.15, step 3
 Metaphase
plate

Spindle Sister
chromatids
Metaphase
Figure 3.15, step 4
Daughter
chromosomes
Anaphase
Figure 3.15, step 5
 Nucleolus
forming

Cleavage
furrow

Nuclear
envelope
forming
Telophase and cytokinesis
Figure 3.15, step 6
 Protein Synthesis

• Gene—DNA segment that carries a

blueprint for building one protein
• Proteins have many functions
– Building materials for cells
– Act as enzymes (biological catalysts)
• RNA is essential for protein synthesis
 Role of RNA
• Transfer RNA (tRNA)
– Transfers appropriate amino acids to the
ribosome for building the protein
• Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
– Helps form the ribosomes where proteins are
built
• Messenger RNA (mRNA)
– Carries the instructions for building a protein
from the nucleus to the ribosome
 Transcription and Translation

• Transcription
– Transfer of information from DNA’s base
sequence to the complimentary base
sequence of mRNA
– Three-base sequences on mRNA are called
codons
 Transcription and Translation
• Translation
– Base sequence of nucleic acid is translated to
an amino acid sequence
– Amino acids are the building blocks of
proteins
Nucleus DNA Cytoplasm
(site of transcription) (site of translation)
A
A U 1 mRNA specifying
T U
C A
G G T one polypeptide is
T C T
T A A made on DNA template.
C A G
G G AC
C C A
T G G
A A C
U

G
A
T
2 mRNA leaves
Amino nucleus and attaches to
mRNA acids ribosome, and
translation begins.
Nuclear pore
Nuclear membrane Correct amino
acid attached Synthetase
to each species enzyme
of tRNA by an
enzyme

4 As the ribosome Growing

moves along the polypeptide
Met lle
mRNA, a new amino chain
acid is added to the Gly 3 Incoming tRNA
growing protein chain. recognizes a
Ser complementary mRNA
Phe codon calling for its amino
Ala acid by binding via its
anticodon to the codon.
Peptide bond tRNA “head”
5 Released tRNA U A U
reenters the cytoplasmic bearing anticodon
pool, ready to be
recharged with a new
G
amino acid. AA
Large ribosomal subunit
C G G
C G C C A U A G U CC
U U
U
A
Codon
Direction of ribosome
advance; ribosome
Portion of Small ribosomal subunit moves the mRNA strand
mRNA already along sequentially
translated as each codon is read.

Figure 3.16
Nucleus DNA Cytoplasm
(site of transcription) (site of translation)
A
A U 1 mRNA specifying
T U
C A
G G T one polypeptide is
T C T
T A A made on DNA template.
C A G
G G AC
C C A
T G G
A A C
U

G
A
T
Amino
mRNA acids

Nuclear pore
Nuclear membrane Correct amino
acid attached Synthetase
to each species enzyme
of tRNA by an
enzyme

Growing
Met polypeptide
chain lle
Gly
Ser
Phe
Ala
Peptide bond tRNA “head”
U A U
bearing anticodon

G
AA
Large ribosomal subunit
C G G
C G C C A U A G U CC
U U
U
A
Codon
Direction of ribosome
advance; ribosome
Portion of Small ribosomal subunit moves the mRNA strand
mRNA already along sequentially
translated as each codon is read.

Figure 3.16, step 1

Nucleus DNA Cytoplasm
(site of transcription) (site of translation)
A
A U 1 mRNA specifying
T U
C A
G G T one polypeptide is
T C T
T A A made on DNA template.
C A G
G G AC
C C A
T G G
A A C
U

G
A
T
2 mRNA leaves
Amino nucleus and attaches to
mRNA acids ribosome, and
translation begins.
Nuclear pore
Nuclear membrane Correct amino
acid attached Synthetase
to each species enzyme
of tRNA by an
enzyme

Growing
Met polypeptide
chain lle
Gly
Ser
Phe
Ala
Peptide bond tRNA “head”
U A U
bearing anticodon

G
AA
Large ribosomal subunit
C G G
C G C C A U A G U CC
U U
U
A
Codon
Direction of ribosome
advance; ribosome
Portion of Small ribosomal subunit moves the mRNA strand
mRNA already along sequentially
translated as each codon is read.

Figure 3.16, step 2

Nucleus DNA Cytoplasm
(site of transcription) (site of translation)
A
A U 1 mRNA specifying
T U
C A
G G T one polypeptide is
T C T
T A A made on DNA template.
C A G
G G AC
C C A
T G G
A A C
U

G
A
T
2 mRNA leaves
Amino nucleus and attaches to
mRNA acids ribosome, and
translation begins.
Nuclear pore
Nuclear membrane Correct amino
acid attached Synthetase
to each species enzyme
of tRNA by an
enzyme

Growing
Met polypeptide
chain lle
Gly 3 Incoming tRNA
recognizes a
Ser complementary mRNA
Phe codon calling for its amino
Ala acid by binding via its
anticodon to the codon.
Peptide bond tRNA “head”
U A U
bearing anticodon

G
AA
Large ribosomal subunit
C G G
C G C C A U A G U CC
U U
U
A
Codon
Direction of ribosome
advance; ribosome
Portion of Small ribosomal subunit moves the mRNA strand
mRNA already along sequentially
translated as each codon is read.

Figure 3.16, step 3

Nucleus DNA Cytoplasm
(site of transcription) (site of translation)
A
A U 1 mRNA specifying
T U
C A
G G T one polypeptide is
T C T
T A A made on DNA template.
C A G
G G AC
C C A
T G G
A A C
U

G
A
T
2 mRNA leaves
Amino nucleus and attaches to
mRNA acids ribosome, and
translation begins.
Nuclear pore
Nuclear membrane Correct amino
acid attached Synthetase
to each species enzyme
of tRNA by an
enzyme

4 As the ribosome Growing

moves along the polypeptide
Met lle
mRNA, a new amino chain
acid is added to the Gly 3 Incoming tRNA
growing protein chain. recognizes a
Ser complementary mRNA
Phe codon calling for its amino
Ala acid by binding via its
anticodon to the codon.
Peptide bond tRNA “head”
U A U
bearing anticodon

G
AA
Large ribosomal subunit
C G G
C G C C A U A G U CC
U U
U
A
Codon
Direction of ribosome
advance; ribosome
Portion of Small ribosomal subunit moves the mRNA strand
mRNA already along sequentially
translated as each codon is read.

Figure 3.16, step 4

Nucleus DNA Cytoplasm
(site of transcription) (site of translation)
A
A U 1 mRNA specifying
T U
C A
G G T one polypeptide is
T C T
T A A made on DNA template.
C A G
G G AC
C C A
T G G
A A C
U

G
A
T
2 mRNA leaves
Amino nucleus and attaches to
mRNA acids ribosome, and
translation begins.
Nuclear pore
Nuclear membrane Correct amino
acid attached Synthetase
to each species enzyme
of tRNA by an
enzyme

4 As the ribosome Growing

moves along the polypeptide
Met lle
mRNA, a new amino chain
acid is added to the Gly 3 Incoming tRNA
growing protein chain. recognizes a
Ser complementary mRNA
Phe codon calling for its amino
Ala acid by binding via its
anticodon to the codon.
Peptide bond tRNA “head”
5 Released tRNA U A U
reenters the cytoplasmic bearing anticodon
pool, ready to be
recharged with a new
G
amino acid. AA
Large ribosomal subunit
C G G
C G C C A U A G U CC
U U
U
A
Codon
Direction of ribosome
advance; ribosome
Portion of Small ribosomal subunit moves the mRNA strand
mRNA already along sequentially
translated as each codon is read.

Figure 3.16, step 5

 Body Tissues
• Tissues
– Groups of cells with similar structure and
function
– Four primary types
• Epithelial tissue (epithelium)
• Connective tissue
• Muscle tissue
• Nervous tissue
 Epithelial Tissues
• Locations
– Body coverings
– Body linings
– Glandular tissue
• Functions
– Protection
– Absorption
– Filtration
– Secretion
 Epithelium Characteristics
• Cells fit closely together and often form
sheets
• The apical surface is the free surface of
the tissue
• The lower surface of the epithelium rests
on a basement membrane
• Avascular (no blood supply)
• Regenerate easily if well nourished
 Apical surface

Basal Simple
surface

Apical surface

Basal
surface Stratified
(a) Classification based on number of cell layers
Figure 3.17a
 Classification of Epithelia

• Number of cell layers

– Simple—one layer
– Stratified—more than one layer
 Apical surface

Basal Simple
surface

Apical surface

Basal
surface Stratified
(a) Classification based on number of cell layers
Figure 3.17a
 Classification of Epithelia
• Shape of cells
– Squamous
• flattened
– Cuboidal
• cube-shaped
– Columnar
• column-like
Figure 3.17b
 Simple Epithelia
• Simple squamous
– Single layer of flat cells
– Location - usually forms membranes
• Lines body cavities
• Lines lungs and capillaries
– Functions in diffusion, filtration, or secretion in
membranes
 Air sacs of
lungs

Nucleus of Nuclei of
squamous squamous
epithelial cell epithelial
cells

Basement
membrane Photomicrograph: Simple
squamous epithelium forming part
(a) Diagram: Simple squamous of the alveolar (air sac) walls (185×).

Figure 3.18a
 Simple Epithelia
• Simple cuboidal
– Single layer of cube-like cells
– Locations
• Common in glands and their ducts
• Forms walls of kidney tubules
• Covers the ovaries
– Functions in secretion and absorption; ciliated
types propel mucus or reproductive cells
 Nucleus of Simple
simple cuboidal
cuboidal epithelial
epithelial cells
cell
Basement
Basement membrane
membrane
Connective
tissue

Photomicrograph: Simple cuboidal

(b) Diagram: Simple cuboidal epithelium in kidney tubules (250×).

Figure 3.18b
 Simple Epithelia
• Simple columnar
– Single layer of tall cells
– Often includes mucus-producing goblet cells
– Location - lines digestive tract
– Functions in secretion and absorption; ciliated
types propel mucus or reproductive cells
 Simple
columnar
Nucleus of simple epithelial
columnar epithelial cell cell
Goblet cell

Basement
membrane
Connective
Basement tissue
membrane
Photomicrograph: Simple columnar
epithelium of the small intestine
(430×).
(c) Diagram: Simple columnar

Figure 3.18c
 Simple Epithelia
• Pseudostratified columnar
– Single layer, but some cells are shorter than
others
– Often looks like a double layer of cells but all
cells rest on the basement membrane
– Location - respiratory tract, where it is ciliated
– Functions in absorption or secretion
 Cilia
Pseudo-
stratified
epithelial
layer Pseudo-
stratified
epithelial
layer
Basement
membrane
Basement
membrane
Connective
tissue

Photomicrograph: Pseudostratified
ciliated columnar epithelium lining
(d) Diagram: Pseudostratified (ciliated) the human trachea (430×).
columnar

Figure 3.18d
 Stratified Epithelia
• Stratified squamous
– Cells at the apical surface are flattened
– Functions as a protective covering where
friction is common
– Locations - lining of the:
• Skin
• Mouth
• Esophagus
 Nuclei

Stratified
squamous
Stratified
epithelium
squamous
epithelium

Basement Basement
membrane membrane
Connective
Photomicrograph: Stratified tissue
squamous epithelium lining of
(e) Diagram: Stratified squamous the esophagus (140×).

Figure 3.18e
 Stratified Epithelia
• Stratified cuboidal—two layers of cuboidal
cells; functions in protection
• Stratified columnar—surface cells are
columnar, cells underneath vary in size
and shape; functions in protection
• Stratified cuboidal and columnar
– Rare in human body
– Found mainly in ducts of large glands
 Stratified Epithelia
• Transitional epithelium
– Composed of modified stratified squamous
epithelium
– Shape of cells depends upon the amount of
stretching
– Functions in stretching and the ability to return
to normal shape
– Location - lines organs of the urinary system
 Basement
membrane
Transi-
tional
epithelium
Transitional
Basement epithelium
membrane
Connective
tissue

Photomicrograph: Transitional epithelium lining of

the bladder, relaxed state (215×); surface rounded
cells flatten and elongate when the bladder fills
(f) Diagram: Transitional with urine.

Figure 3.18f
 Glandular Epithelium
• Gland
– One or more cells responsible for secreting a
particular product
– Secretions contain protein molecules in an
aqueous (water-based) fluid
 Glandular Epithelium
• Two major gland types
– Endocrine gland
• Ductless since secretions diffuse into blood
vessels
• All secretions are hormones
– Exocrine gland
• Secretions empty through ducts to the epithelial
surface
• Include sweat and oil glands
 Connective Tissue
• Found everywhere in the body
• Includes the most abundant and widely
distributed tissues
• Functions
– Binds body tissues together
– Supports the body
– Provides protection
 Connective Tissue
Characteristics
• Variations in blood supply
– Some tissue types are well vascularized
– Some have a poor blood supply or are
avascular
• Extracellular matrix
– Non-living material that surrounds living cells
 Extracellular Matrix
• Two main elements
• Ground substance—mostly water along
with adhesion proteins and polysaccharide
molecules
– Fibers
• Produced by the cells
• Three types
– Collagen (white) fibers
– Elastic (yellow) fibers
– Reticular fibers
 Connective Tissue Types
• Bone (osseous tissue)
– Composed of
• Bone cells in lacunae (cavities)
• Hard matrix of calcium salts
• Large numbers of collagen fibers
– Functions to protect and support the body
 Bone cells in
lacunae
Central canal

Lacunae

Lamella

(a) Diagram: Bone Photomicrograph: Cross-sectional view

of ground bone (300×).

Figure 3.19a
 Connective Tissue Types
• Hyaline cartilage
– Most common type of cartilage
– Composed of
• Abundant collagen fibers
• Rubbery matrix
– Locations
• Larynx
• Entire fetal skeleton prior to birth
– Functions as a more flexible skeletal element
than bone
 Chondrocyte
(Cartilage cell)

Chondrocyte
in lacuna

Lacunae

Matrix

(b) Diagram: Hyaline cartilage Photomicrograph: Hyaline cartilage

from the trachea (500×).

Figure 3.19b
 Connective Tissue Types
• Elastic cartilage
– Provides elasticity
– Location
• Supports the external ear
• Fibrocartilage
– Highly compressible
– Location
• Forms cushion-like discs between vertebrae
 Chondrocytes
in lacunae

Chondro-
cites in
lacunae Collagen fiber
Collagen
fibers

(c) Diagram: Fibrocartilage Photomicrograph: Fibrocartilage of an

intervertebral disc (110×).

Figure 3.19c
 Connective Tissue Types
• Dense connective tissue (dense fibrous
tissue)
– Main matrix element is collagen fiber
– Fibroblasts are cells that make fibers
– Locations
• Tendons—attach skeletal muscle to bone
• Ligaments—attach bone to bone at joints
• Dermis—lower layers of the skin
 Ligament
Tendon Collagen
fibers

Collagen
fibers Nuclei of
fibroblasts
Nuclei of
fibroblasts

(d) Diagram: Dense fibrous Photomicrograph: Dense fibrous connective tissue

from a tendon (500×).

Figure 3.19d
 Connective Tissue Types
• Loose connective tissue types
– Areolar tissue
• Most widely distributed connective tissue
• Soft, pliable tissue like “cobwebs”
• Functions as a packing tissue
• Contains all fiber types
• Can soak up excess fluid (causes edema)
 Mucosa
epithelium
Lamina Elastic
propria fibers

Collagen
fibers

Fibers of Fibroblast
matrix nuclei

Nuclei of
fibroblasts

(e) Diagram: Areolar Photomicrograph: Areolar connective tissue, a

soft packaging tissue of the body (300×).

Figure 3.19e
 Connective Tissue Types
• Loose connective tissue types
– Adipose tissue
• Matrix is an areolar tissue in which fat globules
predominate
• Many cells contain large lipid deposits
• Functions
– Insulates the body
– Protects some organs
– Serves as a site of fuel storage
 Nuclei of
fat cells

Vacuole
containing
fat droplet
Nuclei of
fat cells
Vacuole
containing
fat droplet

(f) Diagram: Adipose Photomicrograph: Adipose tissue from the

subcutaneous layer beneath the skin (430×).

Figure 3.19f
 Connective Tissue Types
• Loose connective tissue types
– Reticular connective tissue
• Delicate network of interwoven fibers
• Locations
– Forms stroma (internal supporting network) of lymphoid
organs
» Lymph nodes
» Spleen
» Bone marrow
 Spleen

White blood cell

(lymphocyte)
Reticular
cell Reticular fibers
Blood
cell
Reticular
fibers

(g) Diagram: Reticular Photomicrograph: Dark-staining network

of reticular connective tissue (430×).

Figure 3.19g
 Connective Tissue Types
• Blood (vascular tissue)
– Blood cells surrounded by fluid matrix called
blood plasma
– Fibers are visible during clotting
– Functions as the transport vehicle for
materials
 Blood cells
in capillary

Neutrophil
(white blood
cell)

White Red blood

blood cell cells

Monocyte
Red (white blood
blood cells cell)
(h) Diagram: Blood Photomicrograph: Smear of human blood (1300×)

Figure 3.19h
 Muscle Tissue
• Function is to produce movement
• Three types
– Skeletal muscle
– Cardiac muscle
– Smooth muscle
 Muscle Tissue Types
• Skeletal muscle
– Under voluntary control
– Contracts to pull on bones or skin
– Produces gross body movements or facial
expressions
– Characteristics of skeletal muscle cells
• Striated
• Multinucleate (more than one nucleus)
• Long, cylindrical cells
 Nuclei

Part of muscle
fiber

(a) Diagram: Skeletal muscle Photomicrograph: Skeletal muscle (approx. 300×).

Figure 3.20a
 Muscle Tissue Types
• Cardiac muscle
– Under involuntary control
– Found only in the heart
– Function is to pump blood
– Characteristics of cardiac muscle cells
• Striated
• One nucleus per cell
• Cells are attached to other cardiac muscle cells at
intercalated disks
 Intercalated
discs

Nucleus

(b) Diagram: Cardiac muscle Photomicrograph: Cardiac muscle (430×).

Figure 3.20b
 Muscle Tissue Types
• Smooth muscle
– Under involuntary muscle
– Found in walls of hollow organs such as
stomach, uterus, and blood vessels
– Characteristics of smooth muscle cells
• No visible striations
• One nucleus per cell
• Spindle-shaped cells
 Smooth
muscle cell

Nuclei

(c) Diagram: Smooth muscle Photomicrograph: Sheet of smooth muscle (approx. 300×).

Figure 3.20c
 Nervous Tissue
• Composed of neurons and nerve support
cells
• Function is to send impulses to other
areas of the body
– Irritability
– Conductivity
• Support cells called neuroglia insulate,
protect, and support neurons
Brain

Nuclei of
Spinal supporting
cord cells

Cell body
Nuclei of of neuron
supporting
cells
Cell body Neuron
of neuron processes

Neuron
processes
Diagram: Nervous tissue Photomicrograph: Neurons (150×)

Figure 3.21
Nervous tissue: Internal communication
• Brain, spinal cord, and nerves

Muscle tissue: Contracts to cause movement

• Muscles attached to bones (skeletal)
• Muscles of heart (cardiac)
• Muscles of walls of hollow organs (smooth)

Epithelial tissue: Forms boundaries between different

environments, protects, secretes, absorbs, filters
• Lining of GI tract organs and other hollow organs
• Skin surface (epidermis)

Connective tissue: Supports, protects, binds

other tissues together
• Bones
• Tendons
• Fat and other soft padding tissue

Figure 3.22
Tissue Repair (Wound Healing)
• Regeneration
– Replacement of destroyed tissue by the same
kind of cells
• Fibrosis
– Repair by dense (fibrous) connective tissue
(scar tissue)
• Whether regeneration or fibrosis occurs
depends on:
– Type of tissue damaged
– Severity of the injury
 Events in Tissue Repair
• Inflammation
– Capillaries become very permeable
– Clotting proteins migrate into the area from
the blood stream
– A clot walls off the injured area
• Granulation tissue forms
– Growth of new capillaries
– Rebuild collagen fibers
• Regeneration of surface epithelium
– Scab detaches
 Regeneration of Tissues
• Tissues that regenerate easily
– Epithelial tissue (skin and mucous membranes)
– Fibrous connective tissues and bone
• Tissues that regenerate poorly
– Skeletal muscle
• Tissues that are replaced largely with scar
tissue
– Cardiac muscle
– Nervous tissue within the brain and spinal cord
Developmental Aspects of Tissue

• Epithelial tissue arises from all three

primary germ layers
• Muscle and connective tissue arise from
the mesoderm
• Nervous tissue arises from the ectoderm
• With old age, there is a decrease in mass
and viability in most tissues
 REFERENCE
Marieb, E. (2018) Essentials of Human
Anatomy and Physiology, 12th Ed.,
Pearson Educators South Asia, Pte. Ltd.,
Singapore