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ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY

Prepared by: Vincent Raphael V. Manarang MAN, RN(PH,UK)

I. THE CELL Structure: Membranous tubules and flattened

• Basic functional unit of all living organism. sacs with no attached ribosomes

C
Function: Manufactures lipids and carbohydrates;
Basic Parts detoxifies harmful chemicals; stores and

N
• Plasmalemma controls release of calcium
• Cytoplasm Golgi Apparatus

I
- Site of cell-synthesizing activity • Flattened membrane sacs stacked on each

Y,
Contains: other that collects, modifies, packages and
> Cytosol (cytoplasmic matrix) distributes proteins and lipids manufactured by

EM
> Organelles the ER.
> Metaplasm (Cytoplasmic inclusions) • Produces lysosome
• Nucleus Lysosome
• Membrane bound vesicles formed from the Golgi

D
Plasmalemma apparatus; contain the intracellular digestive
• Structure: lipid bilayer composed of enzyme (hydrolase) that were synthesized in the

CA
phospholipids and cholesterol; RER
proteins extend across or are embedded Peroxisome
• Function: Outer boundary of cells; keep A • Vesicles formed by budding off from the SER
constant ion content of cytoplasm; function and by self-replication
in intercellular communication • They contain oxidases rather than hydrolases
Cytosol Secretory Vesicle/ Granules
W

 Liquid part of the cell • Membrane-bound vesicles that pinch-off from

 Ground Substance the Golgi apparatus move to the surface of the
IE

Nucleus cell, their membranes fuse with the plasma

• Largest organelle of the cell and the most membrane, to release contents by exocytosis
obvious feature under the microscope. Endosomes
EV

• Control center of the cell containing the • Vesicles formed as a result of phagocytosis
blueprint from which all the other components Mitochondria
of the cell are constructed. Structure:
R

Nucleolus • double membraned elongated organelles

 a non-membranous circular-shaped structure 1. outer membrane and
2. inner membrane with many folds(cristae)
K

found inside the nucleus that is the site of

ribosomal RNA synthesis. Function:
N

Nucleoplasm • Carry out aerobic respiration to produce ATP

 Ground substance of the nucleus (adenosine triphosphate)
A

Chromatin
 The complex of DNA and proteins (histones) Non-membrane bound Organelles
PR

Membrane-bound Organelles Cytoskeleton

Consists of three groups of proteins:
TO

Endoplasmic Reticulum A. Microtubule

• Anastomosing network of intercommunicating - maintain cell shape
channels or cisternae formed by a continuous - assist in cell division
membrane - form essential components like
Rough E. R. cilia and flagella
Structure: Membranous tubules and flattened sacs B. Intermediate filaments
with attached ribosomes - strengthen and maintain cell
Function: Synthesizes proteins and transports shape
them to Golgi apparatus C. Actin/microfilaments
Smooth E. R. - some involved in movement &
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contraction 1. Apoptosis - programmed cell death that

- change cell shape results in disassembly and phagocytosis of
- support microvilli the cell before any leakage of its contents
Basal bodies occurs, and neighboring cells usually remain
• Required for development of cilia healthy.
• Derived from centrioles 2. Necrosis - Cells die as a result of an acute
Centrosome injury usually swell and burst due to loss of
• Oval-shaped organelle located next to the cell membrane integrity. Necrotic cells may

C
nucleus spill their contents, causing inammation
• Specialized zone of cytoplasm that is the center and injury to neighboring cells

N
of microtubule formation
• Contains a pair of centrioles III. INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

I
Ribosomes

Y,
• Protein synthesis for use within the cell. Skin
Composed of rRNA and protein. It is the largest single organ of the body

EM
Also known as the integument or cutaneous
Cell Surface Appendages layer.

Cilia Functions: “Protect VETS”

D
• Short, hair-like structures  Protection
• Capable of moving  Vitamin D Production

CA
• Contains specialized microtubules similar to the  Excretion
orientation in centrioles.  Temperature Regulation
Flagella A  Sensation
• Have structure similar to cilia but are much
longer. 3 Main Layers of Skin
Microvilli  Epidermis
W

• Specialized extension of cell membrane that are  Dermis

supported by microfilaments but do not actively  Hypodermis or subcutis
IE

move and increase the surface area of cells

Stereocilia Epidermis
• Unusually long microvilli
EV

Strata:
II. CELL LIFE CYCLE 1. Stratum Basale / Germinativum
- Basal Layer
R

Phases of Cell Cycle - Keratinocyte stem cells undergo mitotic divisions

• Non-dividing phase (interphase) approximately every 19 days.
- G1 phase (first gap) 2. Stratum Spinosum
K

- S phase (synthesis) - Prickle cell layer/ Spinous layer

N

- G2 (second gap) - Normally the thickest

• Cell Division/ Mitotic phase (M phase) 3. Stratum Granulosum
A

- Prophase - Granular layer

- Metaphase 4. Stratum Lucidum
PR

- Anaphase - thin, clear zone that consists of several layers of

- Telophase dead cells
Meiosis - Cells appear somewhat transparent.
TO

• produce four genetically different daughter cells. 5. Stratum Corneum

Each of these daughter cells contains half as - Keratin layer
many chromosomes as the parent cell. - consists of cornified cells, which are dead cells
2 key features: - The type of keratin found in the skin is soft
- Synapsis keratin.
- Crossover
2 events: Melanin – group of pigments responsible for skin,
- Meiosis 1 hair, and eye color
- Meiosis 2
Cell Death Hair
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- Hair follicles Divided into:

- Hair shafts  Neurocranium (Cranial bones)
- “PEST OF 6”
Hair Growth Cycle “AnCaTe” (total of 8 in number, but only 6 by name)
(Makati pag tumutubo ang buhok!)  Viscerocranium (Facial bones + Mandible)
 Anagen - Facial “Viagras Can Not Make Penis Like
 Catagen Zebra”
 Telogen - Mandible

C
Nail Sutures

N
*Nail Body/ plate - Sagittal
*Nail root

I
- Coronal
*Nail bed - Lambdoid

Y,
- Squamosal
Glands of the Skin
- Metopic

EM
 Sebaceous
 Sweat glands FONTANELLES = unosified gaps (temporary)
a. Merocrine/ eccrine  FRONTAL (A) = closes 18-24 months ◊
b. Apocrine  OCCIPITAL (P) = closes 2-3 months ∆

D
 OTHERS: mastoid & sphenoid
IV. SKELETAL SYSTEM

CA
PARANASAL SINUSES: “FES M”
Functions: - Frontal
1. Support - Ethmoid
2. Protection
A - Sphenoid
3. Movement - Maxillary
4. Storage
W

5. Blood cell production Vertebral Column

- It is the central axis of the skeleton.
IE

Types of Bone based on Location: - Has a normal curvature

 Axial
 Appendicular
EV

Types of Bone based on their Shape

 Long Bones – longer than they are wide
R

ex. Upper and lower limbs

 Short Bones – approximately as broad as they
are long
K

ex. Wrist and ankle

Cervical Vertebrae
N

 Flat Bones – relatively thin, flattened shape

ex. Ribs, scapulae - Have very small bodies
- Most have bifid spinous processes
A

 Irregular Bones – with shapes that do not fit

into the other three - The only vertebrae that has a transverse
PR

ex. Vertebrae and facial bones foramina

C1, C2, C7 = Atypical
Common Terms in Bone Anatomy C3, C4, C5, C6 = Typical
TO

 Foramen – hole in a bone

 Canal or meatus – elongated hole which is a C1 = Atlas (Holds up the head)
tunnel-like passage through the bone.  No body and no spinous process
 Fossa – depression on a bone C2 = Axis
 Tubercle or tuberosity – lump on a bone  Has DENS
 Process – projection from a bone  The dens fits into the enlarged vertebral
foramen of the atlas, and the atlas rotates
SKULL around this process.
- 22 BONES excluding ossicles
- composed of FLAT & IRREGULAR BONES C7

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 The spine is not bifid Clavicle

 It resembles the 1st Thoracic Vertebra - Collar bone
Vertebral prominence – most prominent spinous - S-shaped bone
process Parts: Acromial End, Shaft, Sternal End

Thoracic Vertebrae Long bones of Upper Appendicular:

- Possess long processes - Humerus
- Typical vertebrae - Radius

C
- Ulna
Lumbar Vertebrae

N
- The body is wider transversely and deeper in Humerus
front.  Head – articulates with the glenoid cavity

I
- With mammillary process  Anatomical neck – distal to the head; almost

Y,
non-existent
Sacral Vertebrae  Surgical neck – common fracture site that

- 5 vertebrae fused into a single bone called
Sacrum.
Alae - Wing-shaped areas on the superior surfaces
of the lateral parts.
EM
often requires surgical repair
 Greater tubercle – located at lateral surface
 Lesser Tubercle – located at the anterior
surface of the proximal end of the humerus.

D
 Capitulum – Very rounded; located at the
Coccyx lateral portion that articulates with the radius.

CA
- Tailbone  Trochlea – located at the medial portion;
- NO vertebral foramina nor well- developed articulates with the ulna.
processes A  Medial and Lateral Epicondyles – Proximal
to the capitulum and trochlea which are points
Rib Cage of attachment for the muscles of the forearm.
- Thoracic cage
W

Ulna
 Trochlear Notch (Semilunar Notch) – C-
IE

shaped articular surface located at the proximal

end of the ulna.
Trochlear notch is bounded by two processes:
EV

Ribs  Olecranon Process – Larger, posterior

- 12 pairs process; “the elbow”
 Coronoid Process - Smaller, anterior process
Classified as either:
R

 Head – Small head of ulna which articulates

- TRUE RIBS/ Vertebrosternal both the radius and the wrist bones; located at
- FALSE RIBS the posterior, medial (ulnar) side of the distal
K

a. Vertebrochondral forearm.
b. Floating/ Vertebral
N

 Styloid Process – located at the posteromedial

side of head to which ligaments of wrist are
Sternum
A

attached
- Breastbone; Sword-shaped
PR

- Composed of three parts: Radius

 Manubrium  Head – Proximal end of the radius; concave and
 Gladiolus/ Body articulates with the capitulum of the humerus.
 Xiphoid Process
TO

 Radial Tuberosity – Point of attachment of

Scapula
- Coracoid process provides attachments for
some shoulder and arm muscles.
- Glenoid Cavity – located in the superior
lateral portion of the bone, articulates with the Carpals
head of the humerus.
- Acromion Process – attachment of clavicle
4 TOPRANK REVIEW ACADEMY - NURSING
biceps brachii.
 Styloid Process – Located at the lateral side
of the distal radius in which wrist ligaments are
attached.
- Wrist bones
- Composed of eight bones arranged into two
rows of four each (Scaphoid, Lunate,
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Triquetrium, Pisiform, Trapezoid, Trapezium,  Navicular (Boat-shaped) – Lies between the

Capitate, Hamate) talus posteriorly and the cuneiforms anteriorly.
“She Looks Too Pretty Distal Four Bones in a row:
Try To Catch Her”  Medial, wedge-shaped bone:
 Medial Cuneiform
Metacarpals  Intermediate Cuneiform
- Five metacarpal bones are attached to the  Lateral Cuneiform
carpal bones and constitute the bony framework  Cuboid (Cube-shaped) – Most lateral of the

C
of the hand. distal row
- Five digits of each hand include one thumb and “Try Catching Naughty Cute Chicks”

N
four fingers.
- Each digit consists of small long bones called Metatarsals

I
Phalanges: - Arranged in a manner very similar to that of the

Y,
Thumb – has two phalanges (proximal and metacarpal bones and phalanges of the hand.
distal)

EM
Four Fingers – have three phalanges V. MUSCULAR SYSTEM
(Proximal, Middle and Distal)
Functions:
Pelvic Girdle  Body Movement

D
Pelvis = Pelvic Girdle and Coccyx.  Maintenance of Posture
 Respiration

CA
Femur  Production of Body Heat
- Has a prominent, rounded head, where it  Communication
articulates with the acetabulum A  Constriction of Organs and Vessels
- Neck is located at an oblique angle to the shaft  Heart beat
of the femur.
*Some skeletal muscles are not attached to bone at both
W

Proximal shaft exhibits two projections: ends

 Greater Trochanter – Lateral to the neck eg. Facial muscles
IE

 Lesser Trochanter – Small and located on the *Tendons

inferior and posterior to the neck - connects the muscle to the bone
*Origin (head)
EV

Patella - most stationary end of the muscle

- “knee cap” *Insertion
- a large sesamoid bone -end of the muscle attached to the bone
R

Tibia and Fibula undergoing the greatest movement

 Intercondylar Eminence – Located between *Belly
-part of muscle between origin and insertion
K

the condyles; a ridge between the two articular

surfaces of the proximal tibia
N

 Medial Malleolus – Enlarged; Located at the Muscles may be named according to:
distal end of the tibia; helps to form the medial • Location – Pectoralis (Chest)
A

side of the ankle joint • Origin and Insertion – Brachioradialis (which

extends from brachio meaning arm to the
PR

 Lateral Malleolus – Slightly enlarged; creates

radius)
the lateral wall of the ankle joint
• Number of heads – biceps (“bi”, two + “ceps”,
*Fibula does not articulate with the femur but has a head)
TO

small head where it articulates with the tibia.
Tarsals
- Consist of 7 bones:
Proximal in the Foot:
 Talus (Ankle bone) – Articulates with the tibia
and the fibula to form the ankle joint
 Calcaneus (Heel bone) – Largest and
strongest bone in the foot; located inferior to
the talus and supports the bone
5 TOPRANK REVIEW ACADEMY - NURSING
• Function – flexor digitorum (flexes the digits)
• Size – Vastus (means large)
• Shape – Deltoid (means triangular)
• Orientation of fasciculi – Rectus (means
straight)
Types of Muscle:
1. Skeletal muscle
– responsible for movement of skeleton and
organs such as globe of the eye and the tongue.
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- often referred to as voluntary muscle and  External Intercostals

striated muscle.  Internal Intercostals
2. Smooth Muscle  Diaphragm
- also called visceral muscle and involuntary  Rectus Abdominis
muscle  Latissimus Dorsi

3. Cardiac Muscle (myocardium) THIGH MUSCLES (Anterior Compartment)

–structural and functional characteristics are  Rectus Femoris

C
intermediate between those of skeletal and  Vastus Lateralis
smooth muscle  Vastus Medialis

N
- composed of elongated, branched individual  Vastus Intermedius
 Sartorius

I
cells that lie parallel to each other. Contraction
of cardiac muscle is involuntary, vigorous, and

Y,
rhythmic. THIGH MUSCLES (Posterior Compartment)
 Biceps Femoris

EM
 Semimembranosus
 Semitendinosus

OTHER LOWER EXTREMITY MUSCLES

D
 Gastrocnemius
 Soleus

CA
 Gracilis

A MUSCLES OF THE GLUTEAL REGION, PELVIC

FLOOR AND PERINEUM
 Gluteus maximus
MUSCLES OF THE FACE & HEAD  Bulbospongiosus
W

 Orbicularis Oculi  Coccygeus

 Corrugator Supercilii  Levator ani
IE

 Nasalis  External anal sphincter

 Procerus  External urethral sphincter
 Orbicularis Oris
EV

 Buccinator
 Risorius VI. NERVOUS SYSTEM
 Zygomaticus
R

 Mentalis 2 Division accdg to Location:

- CNS
 Occipitalis
- PNS
K

 Frontalis
2 Functional Division of the PNS:
N

 Sensory (Afferent) Division – transmits signals

MUSCLES OF THE NECK from the sensory receptors to the CNS
A

 Sternocleidomastoid  Motor (Efferent) Division – transmits signals

 Trapezius from the CNS to the effector organs
PR

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

MUSCLES OF THE UPPER EXTREMITIES - Brain + Spinal Cord
TO

 Deltoid
 Biceps brachii BRAIN
 Triceps brachii Cerebrum - largest portion of total brain weight, which
 Brachioradialis is about 1200 g in females and 1400 g in males.
 Extensor Digitorum Longitudinal fissure – divides it into right and left
hemisphere
 Flexor Digitorum
Gyri – numerous folds that are the most conspicuous
feature on the surface of the hemispheres.
MUSCLES OF THE THORAX Sulci – grooves in between gyri
 Pectoralis Central sulcus – separates frontal and parietal lobe
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PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

Hemispheres Consists of:
Left Right  Cranial nerves (12): Leave the brain and pass
Language aRts out the skull foramina.
mathematical memoRIGHT NO. NAMES FUNCTION
analytical I Oh Some
II Oh Says
Lobes III Oh Marry

C
• Frontal - voluntary motor function, motivation, IV To Money
aggression, smell, and mood

N
V Touch But
• Parietal - somatic sensory VI And My
• Occipital - vision

I
VII Feel Brother
• Temporal - smell and hearing; memory

Y,
VIII A/ Virgin Says
Diencephalon IX Girl’s Big
X Vagina Boobs

EM
• part between the brainstem and the cerebrum.
• Consists of: XI Aahh/ So Matter
- Thalamus XII Heaven Most
- Hypothalamus

D
- Subthalamus  Spinal nerves (31): Leave the spinal cord and
- Epithalamus pass out via the intervertebral foramina.

CA
8 cervical spinal nerves
Brainstem 12 thoracic.
• connects the spinal cord to the remainder of A 5 lumbar.
brain. 5 sacral.
3 Parts: 1 coccygeal.
1. Medulla Oblongata
W

2. Pons VII. CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

3. Midbrain
IE

2 Functional Components
Cerebellum  Blood Vascular System
• attached to the brainstem posterior to the pons.  Lymph Vascular System
EV

• Controls balance and coordination Blood Vascular System Composition

 Heart
MENINGES  Arteries
R

“PAD” of the Brain  Capillaries

Dura  Veins
Arachnoid
K

Parts of the Heart

Pia 1. Valves
N

> SEMILUNAR
Spinal Cord - Each has three semilunar cusps
A

- located in Spinal Canal - No chordae tendineae or papillary muscles are

- continuation of medulla oblongata and exits the associated with semilunar valves.
PR

foramen magnum a. Pulmonic valve

- meninges are same with brain b. Aortic valve
> ATRIOVENTRICULAR
TO

Contains: a. Tricuspid valve

Gray matter b. Mitral valve
 Located centrally; H-shaped. 2. Atria
White matter. >RIGHT ATRIUM
 Surrounds the gray matter peripherally. - receives blood from superior and
Central canal inferior vena cava
 Filled with CSF. > LEFT ATRIUM
- Incoming blood from pulmonary veins.

3. Ventricles
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> RIGHT VENTRICLE 2. White Blood Cells (leukocytes)

- Responsible for the pulmonic circulation. 3. Platelets (Thrombocytes)
- Pumps deoxygenated blood through the
pulmonic valve to pulmonary artery and lungs Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes)
for oxygenation. - biconcave disk; no nucleus
>LEFT VENTRICLE - contains hemoglobin which colors the cell red
Apex of the heart. - transports oxygen and carbon dioxide
Responsible for the systemic circulation

C
White Blood Cells (Leukocytes)
Blood Circulatory/Vascular System - are spherical cells with nucleus; white in color

N
 Arterial System – distribute blood from the because they lack hemoglobin
heart to capillary beds throughout the body. 2 Types:

I
 Capillaries (Microcirculation) – extremely  Granulocytes “BEN Phil”

Y,
thin-walled vessels forming an interconnected  Basophil (Baso lalagyan ng H20 – 2 Hs –
network where the exchange occurs. Histamine & Heparin)

EM
 Venous System – a low-pressure component  Eosinophil – for allErgy and parasitE
responsible for carrying blood from the capillary  Neutrophil – for NEW infection (acute);
networks to the right atrium of the heart. first to respond (pabibo kasi bago)
 Agranulocytes

D
 Lymphocytes – T cells and B cells
 Monocytes – mononuclear phagocytes

CA
Platelets (Thrombocytes)
A - cell fragments surrounded by plasma
membrane and containing granules
- forms platelet plugs; releases chemicals
necessary for blood clotting
W

Lymphatic Vascular System Blood Groups and Types

IE

 a system of thin-walled endothelial channels that

collect excess interstitial fluid called lymph ABO Blood Group
* Unlike the blood, lymph flows in only one type A blood - has type A antigens
EV

direction, toward the heart. type B blood - has type B antigens

type AB blood - has both A and B antigens
Blood type O blood - has neither A nor B antigens
R

Structural components of blood:

Blood is a connective tissue that consists of cells Rh Blood Group
and cell fragments surrounded by a liquid
K

matrix. People are Rh-positive if they have a certain Rh antigen

N

Plasma – liquid (55%); (the D antigen) on the surface of their red blood cells,
Formed elements – cells and cell and people are Rh-negative if they do not have this Rh
A

fragments (45%) antigen. Antibodies against the Rh antigen do not

develop unless an Rh-negative person is exposed to Rh-
PR

*Blood makes up about 8% of total body weight positive blood.

Plasma
TO

• Pale yellow fluid that consists of: VIII. IMMUNE SYSTEM

- 91% water
- 7% protein (albumin, globulins, Antibody - A glycoprotein of immunoglobulin family
fibrinogen) that interacts specifically with antigens.
- 2% other substances (ions,  IgG
nutrients, gases and waste  IgA
products)  IgM
 IgE
Formed Elements  IgD
1. Red Blood Cells (erythrocytes)

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Thymus  Soft palate: posterior portion which

 primary or central lymphoid organ in which T consists of skeletal muscle and
cells are produced connective tissue
 most active during childhood and at puberty it Uvula
undergoes slow involution.  Posterior extension from soft palate.

Bone Marrow Pharynx

 Site of B-cell development  Consists of three parts:

C
 Primarily located in ribs, vertebrae, sternum and - nasopharynx
pelvis. - oropharynx,

N
 Does not undergo involution unlike thymus - laryngopharynx.

I
Epiglottis
Lymph Nodes - covers the opening of the larynx and keeps

Y,
 Provides perfect location for lymphocytes to be food and drink from entering the larynx
exposed to a wide variety of antigens and to

EM
undergo stimulation. Esophagus
 It is a muscular tube, about 25 cm long in adults
Spleen Upper and lower esophageal sphincter -
 the only lymphoid organ involved in filtration of regulate the movement of materials into and out

D
blood of the esophagus.
 important organ in defense against blood-borne

CA
antigens. Stomach
 main site of old erythrocyte destruction. It is a muscular dilation of the digestive tract
Awhere mechanical and chemical digestion occurs.
MALT Major stomach regions are:
 Mucosa Associated Lymphoid Tissue - cardia
 The total mass of lymphoid tissues in the - fundus
W

gastrointestinal, respiratory and genitourinary - body, and

tracts - pylorus
IE

1. Waldeyer’s ring *All these regions have longitudinal gastric folds, called
Formed by the tonsils rugae.
a. Palatine tonsils
EV

b. Lingual tonsils/ faucial tonsils Liver

c. Pharyngeal tonsils/ adenoids Functions: A B C D E F G H
2. GALT (Gut Associated Lymphoid Tissue) - Albumin Synthesis
R

a. Peyer Patches - Bile Production

b. Appendix - Cholesterol Metabolism
- Detoxification of Drugs and Alcohol
K

IX. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM - Excretion

N

- Factors for Clotting

Lips - Glycogen storage
A

 muscular structures, formed mostly by the - Hormone production “BATH”

orbicularis oris muscle. Parts of the Liver
PR

2 Major Lobes
Tongue - Right
• A mass of striated muscle covered by mucosa - Left
TO

• Major sensory organ for taste and one of the 2 Minor Lobes
major organs of speech. - Caudate and Quadrate
Frenulum - anterior attachment to the floor of
the mouth Gallbladder
- Stores and concentrates bile.
Palate Common bile duct formed by:
 Roof of oral cavity, oor of nasal cavity. Cystic duct (from gallbladder).
 It consists of two parts: Hepatic duct (from liver).
 Hard palate: anterior part which Common bile duct empties into duodenum.
contains bone
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Pancreas  It consists of:

- lobulated gland
Parts: Head, Body & Tail  External nose – It is a visible structure that
Function: Produces digestive enzyme precursors forms a prominent feature of the face
(proenzymes)  Nasal cavity – It extends form nares to
choanae.
Small Intestine  Nasal septum – Partition dividing the nasal
Site where the digestive processes are cavity into right and left parts.

C
completed and where nutrients are
absorbed Pharynx

N
3 Segments: Nasopharynx
 Duodenum  first part

I
 Jejunum  Two auditory tubes from the middle ear open

Y,
 Ileum into the nasopharynx.
Villi - short mucosal outgrowths that project Oropharynx

EM
into the lumen  Extends from soft palate to epiglottis
Laryngopharynx
Large Intestine  It extends from the tip of the epiglottis to the
 Also called bowel, which absorbs water and esophagus and passes posterior to the larynx.

D
electrolytes and forms indigestible material into
feces, has the following regions: Larynx

CA
- cecum  “Voice box”
- colon (ascending, transverse, descending)
 It is both a valve to close the respiratory tract,
- rectum
and an instrument to produce sound.
Haustra - Individual segments that allow for
A
independent contraction Trachea
W
 “Wind pipe”
Anus Trachealis muscle. It relaxes during swallowing
- Last portion of digestive tract that allows the and strongly contracts in the cough reflex
IE

passage of feces
Tracheobronchial Tree
• Internal anal sphincter
EV

1. trachea
• External anal sphincter
2. Main or primary bronchi
3. lobar or secondary bronchi
4. segmental or tertiary bronchi.
R

X. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
5. bronchioles
6. terminal bronchioles
Functions: “PRO-VAPE”
K

7. Respiratory bronchioles
Pulmonary Ventilation
N

Regulation of pH
Alveoli
Olfaction
• Alveoli are saclike evaginations from the
A

Voice Production
respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, and
ACE production
alveolar sacs.
PR

Protection
• Site for Gas exchange
Exchange of Gases
Lungs
TO

2 Structural Divisions:
 Principal organs of respiration
 Upper
 Largest organs of the body (volume basis)
 Lower
Hilum – a region on the medial surface of the lung
where structures enter or exit the lung.
2 Functional Components
 Conducting portion
 Respiratory portion

Nose
 Also called “Nasus”
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XI. URINARY SYSTEM External urinary sphincter - composed of skeletal

muscle that surrounds the urethra as the urethra
Functions of Kidney: “A WET BED” extends through the pelvic floor. This sphincter acts as a
Acid-Base Balance valve that controls the flow of urine through the urethra.
Water Removal
Erythropoiesis
Toxin Removal XII. MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Blood Pressure Control

C
Electrolyte Balance Testes
D (Vitamin) Activation  small, ovoid organs within the scrotum

N
Septa - divide each testis into cone-shaped
Kidneys testicular lobules.

I
• Bean-shaped, about the size of a tightly Lobules – contain seminiferous tubules

Y,
clenched fist. Seminiferous Tubules – site of sperm cell
2 Major Regions of Kidneys: development.

EM
 Outer Cortex
 Inner Medulla Epididymis
 comma-shaped structure on the posterior side of
Nephron the testis.

D
- The histological and functional unit of the  Storage of semen
kidney. Ductus Deferens/ Vas Deferens

CA
2 basic components:  emerges from the tail of the epididymis and
1. renal corpuscle ascends along the posterior side of the testis
- glomerulus A medial to the epididymis
- bowman’s capsule Ejaculatory Duct
2. renal tubules  Formed by the short duct from the seminal
- proximal convoluted tubule vesicle and the ampulla of the ductus deferens.
W

- loop of Henle These ducts project into the prostate gland and
- distal convoluted tubule end by opening into the urethra.
IE

Accessory glands
Urine Formation 1. Seminal Vesicle
3 Major Processes - exocrine glands in which production of their
EV

1. Filtration viscid, yellowish secretion depends on

2. Tubular reabsorption testosterone (seminal fluid)
3. Tubular secretion Components of Seminal Fluid:
R

- Fructose
Ureters - tubes through which urine flows from the - Prostaglandin
kidneys to the urinary bladder and extend inferiorly and - Fibrinogen
K

medially from the renal pelvis at the renal hilum of each 2. Prostate Gland
N

kidney to the urinary bladder - dense organ that resembles a walnut in shape
and size that secretes prostatic fluid
A

Urinary bladder - a hollow, muscular container that 3. Bulbourethral Gland

lies in the pelvic cavity just posterior to the symphysis - Mucus-secreting glands
PR

pubis that stores urine.

Urethra
Urethra - transports urine to the outside of the body,  extends from the urinary bladder to the distal
TO

exits the urinary bladder inferiorly and anteriorly. end of the penis and is a passageway for both
urine and male reproductive fluids.
Internal urinary sphincter – elastic tissue and Penis
smooth muscle that contracts to keep semen from  male organ of copulation
entering the urinary bladder during sexual intercourse. Glans Penis - cap formed from expansion of corpus
spongiosum.
*There is no functional internal urinary sphincter in
females. External Genitalia
Prepuce/ foreskin- loose fold of skin that
covers the glans penis.
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Scrotum – Saclike structure that contains the  Labia majora

testes; male homologue of labia majora in female.  Clitoris
Raphe – an irregular ridge that marks the
midline of the external part of the scrotum that extends Mammary Gland
from the anus, over the scrotal sac, and onto the inferior  Compound tubuloalveolar glands of the
aspect of the body of the penis breasts that resembles highly modified apocrine
sweat glands
Areola

C
Male Sexual Act  Thin skin covering the nipple
1. Sexual Sensation and/or Psychic stimulation  Contains sebaceous glands and abundant

N
2. Penile Erection (with Lubrication) sensory nerves
3. Emission

I
4. Ejaculation Female Sexual Act

Y,
5. Resolution 1. Sexual sensation
2. Female Erection and lubrication

EM
3. Female Orgasm
XIII. FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 4. Resolution (relaxed peacefulness)

Ovaries XIV. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

D
 Almond-shaped bodies producing the oocytes.
2 Parts Pituitary Gland

CA
 Cortex - the denser, outer part of the ovary,  Also called Hypophysis
 Medulla - the looser, inner part of the ovary  It lies below the brain in a small cavity on the
A sphenoid bone, the sella turcica.
Uterine/ Fallopian Tubes 2 Glands/ Parts:
 Also called oviducts 1. Posterior Pituitary or neurohypophysis
Regions: 2. Anterior Pituitary or adenohypophysis
W

1. Infundibulum
2. Ampulla Anterior Pituitary
IE

3. Isthmus  Also called adenohypophysis and is derived

4. Uterine or intramural part from the oral ectoderm.
Uterus
EV

 A pear-shaped organ with thick, muscular walls.

Parts:
1. Fundus
R

2. Body
3. Isthmus
4. Cervix
K

Layers:
N

 Perimetrium
 Myometrium
A

 Endometrium
Vagina
PR

 female organ of copulation

Rugae - ridges
Hymen - covers the vaginal opening, or orifice.
TO

Bartholin’s gland Posterior Pituitary

- Provides lubricating mucus during sexual  Also called the neurohypophysis and consists of:
arousal, also called greater vestibular glands
which are homologous to the male
bulbourethral glands.

External Genitalia
 Vestibule
 Labia minora
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C
Thyroid Gland

N
 composed of two lobes connected by a narrow

I
band of thyroid tissue called isthmus.
Pancreas

Y,
 Largest endocrine gland.  It is both an exocrine gland and an endocrine
gland.

EM
*exocrine – acini - produce pancreatic juice
*endocrine - consisting of pancreatic islets
(islets of Langerhans) secretes hormones that
enter the circulatory system.

D
CA
A
W

Parathyroid gland
 Four small ovoid masses are usually embedded
IE

in the posterior part of each lobe of the thyroid

gland.
Gonads
EV

Parathyroid Hormone
Regulates Blood Ca levels by: Testes
- Increase rate of breakdown of bone by Hormones:
R

osteoclasts  Testosterone
- Increase reabsorption of Ca in kidneys Target tissue: Most Cells
- Increased absorption of Ca from small intestine Response: Aids in spermatogenesis, dev’t of
K

by increased vitamin D synthesis genitalia, maintenance of functional reproductive

organs, secondary sex characteristics, sexual
N

Adrenal Gland behavior

A

 also called the suprarenal glands, are paired

organs lying near the superior poles of the Ovaries
PR

kidneys Hormones:
 Estrogen/ Progesterone
 composed of an inner medulla and an outer
Target tissue: Most cells
cortex.
Response: Aids in uterine and mammary gland
TO

dev’t and function, maturation of genitalia,

secondary sex characteristics, sexual behavior,
menstrual cycle

Thymus
• It is a bilobed gland located in the superior
mediastinum, the partition dividing the thoracic
cavity into the left and right parts.
• The site for the maturation of T cells.

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Thymosin - a hormone secreted by the thymus, is

important in the T-cell maturation process.

Pineal Gland
 It is in the epithalamus of the brain and also
known as the epiphysis cerebri
 Produces melatonin that is responsible for
circadian (24 hours, day/night) rhythm of

C
physiological functions and behaviors.

N
RNs

I
GRAB YOUR LICENSE!!!!

Y,
Dream

EM
Act
Believe

What is your Goal?

D
TO TOP THE BOARD EXAM!

CA
A
W
IE
EV
R
K
N
A
PR
TO

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