Agricultural and Food Microbiology

Cell structure of eukaryotes

Systematics of eukaryots
Protozoans
STRUCTURE OF THE
EUKARYOTIC CELL
 Eukaryotic cell structure

Cutaway schematic of a microbial eukaryote. Although all eukaryotic cells contain a nucleus, not
all organelles and other structures shown are present in all microbial eukaryotes. Not shown is the
cell wall, found in fungi, algae, plants, and a few protists.
 The nucleus

The nucleus is enclosed by a pair of membranes, each

with its own function, separated by a space.
The nucleus contains the chromosomes of the
eukaryotic cell (majority of the DNA content).
https://www.mun.ca/biology/desmid/brian/BIOL2060/BIOL2060-18/18_27.jpg
 The nucleus

https://www.quora.com/What-is-double-nuclear-membrane
 Nuclear membrane (nucleolemma,
karyotheca
Two membranes – different
composition and function
• Outermost: continuous with the
rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
and has ribosomes attached.
• Inner: connected to the elements of
nuclear scaffold (including
chromatin).
http://cytochemistry.net/cell-biology/the-cell-nucleus/nuclear-envelope/

Perinuclear space: between the two

membranes.
http://cytochemistry.net/cell-biology/the-cell-nucleus/nuclear-envelope/

Nuclear pores: allow transport proteins

to import and export other proteins
and nucleic acids into and out of the
nucleus, a process called nuclear
transport.
pores
Nuclear pores

The nuclear pore complex is made

up of a large number of proteins
(50-100 different polypeptides).
http://oregonstate.edu/instruction/bi314/summer09/nucleus.html
 Nuclear pores

https://alaitznatura.wikispaces.com/file/view/nuclear%20pore%20complex.jpg/399923028/nuclear%20pore%20complex.jpg
 Nuclear pores

http://oregonstate.edu/instruction/bi314/summer09/Fig-09-05-0.jpg Animation 1 Animation 2

 Organelles of respiration and
fermentation
1. Mitochondrion
2. Hydrogenosome

Function: chemotropic energy production.

These organelles are enclosed by a double

membrane system.
 Mitochondrion
Mitochondria are of bacterial dimensions and can take on
many shapes (rounded rods in general).
The number of mitochondria per cell depends somewhat on
the cell type and size.
A yeast cell may have only a few mitochondria per cell, while
an animal cell may have a thousand.

http://swift.cmbi.ru.nl/gv/students/mtom/cimage005.JPG
 Mitochondrion
Mitochondria contain folded internal membranes called
cristae. These membranes, formed by invagination of the
inner membrane, contain the enzymes needed for
respiration and ATP production.
The innermost compartment of the mitochondrion is the
matrix (plasma).

https://kontroldc.files.wordpress.com/2015/01/03-36_mitochondria_l.jpg
 Mitochondrion
• Contains DNA, RNA
and ribosomes.
• Hence, the
mitochondrion is capable
of synthesizing its own
genetic material (division)
and able to make its own
protein.
• Mitochondrion has a
central role in the energy
metabolism, due to
cellular respiration and https://www.umdf.org/what-is-mitochondrial-disease/

ATP synthesis (95% of

the cell’s ATP) within.
Animation 1 Animation 2
 Hydrogenosome
• Some eukaryotic microorganisms live an anaerobic
lifestyle (O2 is deadly!).
• Its size is similar to mitochondria.
• Organelle for the final catabolic steps.
• Produces ATP (similarly to mitochondria).
– BUT: lacks citric acid cycle enzymes and cristae.
• The major biochemical reaction in the hydrogenosome
is the oxidation of the compound pyruvate to H2, CO2,
and acetate.
 Hydrogenosome

The hydrogenosome. (a) Electron micrograph of a thin section through a cell of the
anaerobic protist Trichomonas vaginalis showing five hydrogenosomes in cross section.
(b) Biochemistry of the hydrogenosome. Pyruvate is taken up by the hydrogenosome, and
H2, CO2, acetate, and ATP are produced.
 Chloroplast
Chlorophyll-containing
organelle of phototrophic
microbial eukaryotes and
plants and carries out
photosynthesis.
Contains DNA, RNA and
ribosomes, hence it is
able to carry out protein
synthesis and division. http://cdn.biologydiscussion.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/23.jpg
 Chloroplast
Surrounded by a bilayer
membrane.
The inner membrane
forms an extensive
system (lamellae).
Larger lamellae hold
flattened membrane discs
called thylakoids. A stack
of thylakoid discs form https://www.ck12.org/book/CK-12-Biology-Concepts/section/2.10/

granum (plural: grana).

 Chloroplast
Photosynthetic pigments (chlorophylls, carotenoids) are embedded
directly in the thylakoid membrane.

Animation
http://www.s-cool.co.uk/a-level/biology/photosynthesis/revise-it/pigments-and-the-absorption-of-light
 Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
A network of membranes
continuous with the nuclear
membrane.
It has an intensive connection with
other cell compartments: „tubes”
and vesicules transport proteins
and lipids to other organelles.
Main tasks:
–biosynthesis
–modification
–transportation

http://bio1151.nicerweb.com/Locked/media/ch06/ER.html
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
• Smooth endoplasmic
reticulum (SER): not
associated with ribosomes.

• Rough endoplasmic
reticulum (RER): studded
on its outer surface with
ribosomes.
 Rough endoplasmic reticulum

• Ribosomes are attached to the

outer side of the membrane.
• A system of sacs connected
with each other.
• Contiguous with the outer
nuclear membrane.
• Involved in protein production,
protein folding and maturation.
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
Not studded with ribosomes
hence ‘smooth’ ER.
More tubular than the rough ER.
Tasks:
– phospholipid and cholesterol
biosynthesis
– carbohydrate metabolism
– cell detoxification (conversion of
organic chemicals, e.g. drugs, to
safer water-soluble products)
– regulation of Ca2+ level.
 Golgi complex
Occurs in most eukaryotes.
It is a stack of membranes (similar to the ER) that arise
from preexisting Golgi bodies and function in concert
with the ER.
In general, 6-8 flattened membrane-enclosed sacs
(cisternae) form the Golgi complex; protein containing
transport vesicles bud from its surface.
 Golgi complex
Roles:
• protein and
• lipid
modification
sorting and
targeting to specific
locatons within the
cell.
Golgi complex

Participates at:
– synthesis of complex
proteins,
– formation of membrane
of certain cell organelles
– transport processes in the
cell
Golgi complex

An important role is the

selective transport of
„flawy” compounds to the
lysosomes.
 Golgi complex

A striking feature of the Golgi apparatus is its distinct polarity in both structure and
function. Proteins from the ER enter at its cis face (entry face), which is
convex and usually oriented toward the nucleus. They are then transported
through the Golgi and exit from its concave trans face (exit face). As they pass
through the Golgi, proteins are modified and sorted for transport to their
eventual destinations within the cell.
 Lysosomes
The lysosomes
• membrane-enclosed compartments that
• contain digestive enzymes that hydrolyze proteins, fats,
and polysaccharides.
 Lysosomes
The enzymes break down
the foods for biosynthesis and energy generation
and hydrolyze damaged cellular components
 Lysosomes
Work in acidic pH and able to degrade.
• proteins
• nucleic acids,
• lipids and
• carbohydrates.

Animation
The endomembrane system
 Cytoskeleton
The internal support network of eukaryotic cells,
consisting of thin filamentous structures.
(Detected in prokaryots,
as well.)
 Cytoskeleton
Roles:
 Provides mechanical strengths
to the cell.
 Gives shape to the cell.
 Forms a highly dynamic
network, hence the cell is able to
change shape, move and
contract.
 Supports active movements
within the cell (e.g. division of
nucleus).
 The cytoskeleton consists of
microtubules, microfilaments, and
intermediate filaments

INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS MICROTUBULES ACTIN MICROFILAMENTS

Organelles of motility -
flagella and cilia
• Flagella and cilia show the
same 9+2 structure

• Nine pairs of
microtubules surrounding
a central pair of
microtubules.
 Extracellular components

Cell wall

Present in:
– Fungi
– Algae
– Plants

Most protozoans lack a cell wall.

 Extracellular components

Cell wall

Function:
– provide shape
– protect the cell from osmotic lysis
– Limits water uptake
– In multicellular plants the cell wall is responsible for
the final step of gravity resistance.
 Extracellular components

Cell wall

Composition:
– polysaccharides and
– proteins

Animation: inner life of the cell

Diversity of eukaryotic
microbes
Summary of life on
Earth through time
and origin of the
cellular domains.
Cellular life was
present on Earth by 3.8
billion years ago (bya).
Cyanobacteria began
the slow oxygenation
of Earth about 3 bya,
but current levels of
O2 in the atmosphere
were not achieved until
500–800 million years
ago. Eukaryotes are
nucleated cells and
include both microbial
and multicellular
organisms.
The three domains of cellular organisms are Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya.
Archaea and Eukarya diverged long before nucleated cells with organelles (“modern
eukaryotes”) appear in the fossil record. LUCA, last universal common ancestor.
The phylogenetic tree of life. The tree shows the three domains of organisms and a few
representative groups in each domain.
Molecular features of the three domains. Venn diagrams show
which features are shared by the domains and which are
unique.
Diversity of eukaryotic microbes

Eukaryots have stronger phylogenetical relationship

with Archaea than Bacteria.
Phylogenetic tree of Eukaryots was constructed on the
basis of 18S rRNA.
Diversity of eukaryotic microbes

The Eukaryotic common ancestor was

born by the aquisition of a
mitochondrial endosymbiont (a-
proteobacterium).
 Diversity of eukaryotic microbes

Later on, the

heterogenic group of
Eukaryots divided into
Plants, Animals and
Fungi.
 Diversity of eukaryotic microbes

Animals and fungi had a common ancestor.

 Diversity of eukaryotic microbes

The common ancestor of

plants, green algae, red algae
and glaucophytes evolved by
the engulfment of
chloroplast (cyanobacterium).
 Diversity of eukaryotic microbes

Numerous groups of
protists gained
chloroplast during
symbiotic events with
red or green algae.
 Eukaryotic microbes
1. Protists
2. Fungi
3. Unicellular red and green algae
Eukaryotic microbes
Protists
 Eukaryotic microbes - Protists
Protists (protozoa)
Meaning: first or original animals
• Unicellular
• Lack of cell wall (with a few exceptions)
• Colourless (a few coloured phototrophs)
• Able to move

 Diverse morphology
 Various habitats
 Numerous human pathogenic species
 Reproduction
1. Sexual
2. Asexual

Sexual reproduction
may be:
• Isogamy – gametes with
similar morphology
• Anisogamy – gametes
with different morphology
 Sexual reproduction
Forms:

1. Conjugation

2. Copulation – fusion

3. Autogamy – self-fertilization
 Sexual reproduction
1. Conjugation (paramecium)
temporary union 1-2-3

1) Two paramecium of opposite mating

types come in contact with their ventral
surface,
2) macronucleus is disintegrated and 4
finally disappear,
3) micronuclei undergo two successive
divisions one of which is reduction
division (meiosis)
4) male pronucleus of each conjugant 5
cross the cytoplasmic bridge
5) diploid micronuclei divide twice
6) 4 daughter individuals are produced
6

https://www.kullabs.com/classes/subjects/units/lessons/notes/note-detail/1428
 Sexual reproduction
2. Copulation
– permanent fusion
– nuclei fuse after meiosis
– final step of the process is encystment
(capsule formation)
 Sexual reproduction
3. Autogamy (self-fertilization)
• fusion of two gametes that come from one
individual
• meiosis (4 nuclei)
• 2 fuse (2 is rejected)
• followed by encystment (capsule formation)
• typical in parasites
e.g. Coccidia
 Reproduction
Metagenesis
• Alternation of sexual and asexual life cycle in
every generation
• Especially in parasites
e.g. Plasmodium malariae

Animation

Animation Animation
 Asexual reproduction
1
1. Fission – prior to sexual process
e.g. Ciliata

2. Spore formation – after sexual

processes e.g. Sporozoa

3. Budding – inner or outer

e.g. Suctoria
3
 Morphogenesis
The proliferating cell changes its shape in
certain stages of the cell cycle.
– certain cell organelles are reabsorbed,
– new organelles are formed instead,
– nuclear division takes place and ends with the
formation of daugther cells
 Ecology of protozoa
• Their distribution is ubiquitous, cosmopolitan
organisms
• Wide ecological valence (wide tolerance
range)
• Mainly aerobic species and some anaerobic
ones (e.g. parasites, rumen protozoa)
• Live in watery environment and damp places
primarily, but occur in soil and the arctic
environment.
Ecology of protozoa
 Protists – Diplomonads and
Parabasalids

• Unicellular
• Protists with flagella
• Live under anaerobic conditions (animal, human
intestines)
• Energy production by fermentation
• Symbiotic or parasitic lifestyle
 Protists – Diplomonads
• Contain two nuclei of equal size
• Much reduced mitochondria
– lack electron transport proteins
– and enzymes of the citric acid cycle
 Protists – Diplomonads
Giardia intestinalis
(=G. lamblia)
Diarrhea (giardiasis): one of
the most common waterborne
diarrheal diseases in the
United States
Source of infection: water
 Protists – Alveolates

• The alveolates as a group are

characterized by their alveoli,
cytoplasmic sacs located just
under the cytoplasmic
membrane
 Protists – Alveolates

• Three phylogenetically distinct, although

related, kinds of alveolates are known:
– Ciliates – use cilia for motility
– Dinoflagellates – are motile by means of a
flagellum
– Apicomplexans – animal parasites
 Protists - Alveolates
Ciliates
• Movement with cilia
• Phagocytosis (mouth, gullet)
• Two kinds of nuclei
– Macronucleus: basic cellular
functions
https://d2gne97vdumgn3.cloudfront.net/api/file/bz1AFAfwTjaBQoqliOgR

– micronucleus: sexual
reproduction
 Protists - Alveolates
Ciliates
Lifestyle:
• Aquatic organisms
• Obligately anaerobic ciliates
are present in the rumen
• Parasites
 Protists - Alveolates
Dinoflagellates:
• Aquatic organisms
– Free-living
– Symbiosis with corals
• Some produce neurotoxin
(Gonyaulax - red tyde)

Red tyde animation

Red tyde Florida 2016

 Protists - Alveolates
Apicomplexans:
• Nonphototrophic obligate
animal parasites that cause
severe human diseases
– Malaria (mal air (lat): bad air) –
Plasmodium sp.
– Toxoplasmosis – Toxoplasma
sp.
Protists – Amoebozoa
 Protists – Amoebozoa
• A large, diverse group of terrestrial and aquatic
protists
• Use lobe-shaped pseudopodia for movement
and feeding

Major groups:
• Gymnamoebas (aquatic organisms)
• Entamoebas
• Slime molds
 Protists – Amoebozoa
Entamoebas
• Parasites of vertebrates and
invertebrates
– usual habitat is the oral cavity or
intestinal tract of animals

Entamoeba histolytica
Can cause amebic dysentery (bloody
diarrhea)
Serious, often deadly disease
 Protists – Amoebozoa
Entamoeba histolytica
amebic dysentery
Serious, often deadly disease

Animation

Animation 2
 Why eating raw slug is an
extremely bad idea?
https://www.news.com.au/lifestyle/health/health-problems/sydney-man-who-
contracted-rat-lungworm-after-eating-slug-dies/news-
story/08b0e700a8d6d6c6709d2dd92dfeaa8f

Why is it better to avoid raw

fish as food?
https://www.fsai.ie/faq/fish_parasites.html

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9501379

Animation