CELL STRUCTURE

AND THEIR
FUNCTION
 ORGANELLES
• Describe the structure and functions of nucleus and nucleoli
 Nucleus, in biology, a specialized structure occurring in most 
cells (except bacteria and blue-green algae) and separated from
the rest of the cell by a double layer, the nuclear membrane.
This membrane seems to be continuous with the 
endoplasmic reticulum (a membranous network) of the cell
and has pores, which probably permit the entrance of large
molecules. The nucleus controls and regulates the activities of
the cell (e.g., growth and metabolism) and carries the genes,
structures that contain the hereditary information. Nucleoli are
small bodies often seen within the nucleus. The gel-like matrix
in which the nuclear components are suspended is the 
nucleoplasm.
 Because the nucleus houses an organism’s genetic code, which
determines the amino acid sequence of proteins critical for
day-to-day function, it primarily serves as the information
centre of the cell. Information in DNA is transcribed, or
copied, into a range of messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA)
molecules, each of which encodes the information for one 
protein (in some instances more than one protein, such as in
bacteria). The mRNA molecules are then transported through
the nuclear envelope into the cytoplasm, where they are
translated, serving as templates for the synthesis of specific
proteins. For more information on these processes, see 
transcription; translation.
 A cell normally contains only one nucleus. Under some
conditions, however, the nucleus divides but the cytoplasm
 does not. This produces a multinucleate cell (syncytium) such
as occurs in skeletal muscle fibres.
 The nucleolus is the distinct structure present in the nucleus of
eukaryotic cells. Primarily, it participates in assembling the
ribosomes, alteration of transfer RNA and sensing cellular stress. The
nucleolus is composed of RNA and proteins which form around
specific chromosomal regions.

Nucleolus
 It is one of the main components of the nucleus. The chain of RNA
and DNA along with other components form the structural
components. The main components of the nucleolus are ribonucleic
acid, deoxyribonucleic acid, and proteins.
 Structure of the Nucleolus
 In eukaryotic cells, nucleolus has a well-ordered structure with four
main ultrastructural components. The components can be further
identified as:
 Fibrillar Centers: It is the place where the ribosomal proteins are
formed.
 Granular Components: Before ribosomes are formed, these
components have rRNA that binds to ribosomal proteins.
 Dense Fibrillar Components: It has new transcribed RNA, which
connects to the ribosomal proteins.
 Nucleolar vacuoles: It is present only in plant cells.
 The ultrastructure of the nucleolus can be easily visualized through an
electron microscope.  The arrangement of the nucleolus within the cell
can be clearly studied by the techniques –  fluorescent recovery after
photobleaching and fluorescent protein tagging.
 The nucleolus of several plant species has very high concentrations of
iron in contrast to the human and animal cell nucleolus.
 Nucleolus Function
 The nucleolus is considered as the brain of the nucleus, covering
nearly 25% volume of the nucleus. Primarily, it takes part in the
production of subunits that unites to form ribosomes.
Hence, nucleolus plays an important role in the synthesis of proteins
and in the production of ribosomes in eukaryotic cells.

Difference Between Nucleus and Nucleolus

Nucleus Nucleolus

Large in size Very small in size

Bound by the nuclear envelope It has no limiting membrane

It contains chromosomes. It does not hold any chromosomes

It is rich in DNA, the genetic It is rich in RNA

material
 ORGANELLES
• Compare the structure and function of smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum
 ORGANELLES
• Describe the role for Golgi apparatus and secretory vesicles in secretion
 Golgi apparatus. The Golgi apparatus, or complex, plays an
important role in the modification and transport of proteins within
the cell.
 Golgi apparatus, also called Golgi complex or Golgi body,
membrane-bound organelle of eukaryotic cells (cells with clearly
defined nuclei) that is made up of a series of flattened, stacked pouches
called cisternae. The Golgi apparatus is responsible for transporting,
modifying, and packaging proteins and lipids into vesicles for delivery
to targeted destinations. It is located in the cytoplasm next to the 
endoplasmic reticulum and near the cell nucleus. While many types of 
cells contain only one or several Golgi apparatus, plant cells can
contain hundreds.
 What is the relationship between Golgi and secretory vesicles?
The Golgi apparatus gathers simple molecules and combines
them to make molecules that are more complex. It then takes those
big molecules, packages them in vesicles, and either stores them for
later use or sends them out of the cell.
 Golgi apparatus: exocytosis Soluble and secretory proteins leaving the
Golgi apparatus undergo exocytosis. The secretion of soluble proteins
occurs constitutively. In contrast, the exocytosis of secretory proteins is
a highly regulated process, in which a ligand must bind to a receptor to
trigger vesicle fusion and protein secretion.
 ORGANELLES
• Describe the structure and function of mitochondria
 5 Roles Mitochondria Play in Cells
 Production of ATP. Perhaps the most well-known role of
mitochondria is the production of ATP, the energy currency of
cells.
 Calcium Homeostasis. ...
 Regulation of Innate Immunity. ...
 Programmed Cell Death. ...
 Stem Cell Regulation.
1. Production of ATP

Perhaps the most well-known role of mitochondria is the production of

ATP, the energy currency of cells. This complex, multistep process, is
essential for proper functioning of the body, and dysfunction can
contribute to a variety of diseases ranging from diabetes to Parkinson’s
Disease, to rare genetic disorders.
2. Calcium Homeostasis

Mitochondrial calcium exchange is the flow of calcium in and out of a

cell’s mitochondria, a process important in metabolic regulation and cell
death.

3. Regulation of Innate Immunity

Innate immunity is the in-born system that recognizes and responds to

infection by pathogens, providing immediate, non-specific defence.
Mitochondrial antiviral signalling protein (MAVS) plays a key role in the
innate response to viral infections, helping to induce antiviral and anti-
inflammatory pathways.
4. Programmed Cell Death

Apoptosis is the highly controlled process of programmed cell death,

which is used by multicellular organisms in a number of biological
processes, including intrauterine development, mopping up damaged
cells, and maintaining cell numbers. The production of apoptotic
bodies which are engulfed by phagocytes can be activated by both an
intrinsic and extrinsic pathway.

5. Stem Cell Regulation

Mitochondria are thought to play crucial roles in the maintenance of

pluripotency, differentiation, and reprogramming of induced
pluripotent stem cells.
Structure of Mitochondria

The folds increase surface area of the membrane, which

is important because the inner membrane holds the proteins
involved in the electron transport chain. It is also where many other
chemical reactions take place to carry out
the mitochondria's many functions.
What are the 4 parts of the mitochondria?
They are:
the outer mitochondrial membrane,
the intermembrane space (the space between the outer and inner
membranes),
the inner mitochondrial membrane,
the cristae space (formed by infoldings of the inner membrane),
and.
the matrix (space within the inner membrane).
 WHOLE CELL ACTIVITY
• Describe the process of protein synthesis

The Art of Protein Synthesis

 Protein synthesis is the process in which cells make proteins. It occurs
in two stages: transcription and translation.
 Transcription is the transfer of genetic instructions in DNA to mRNA
in the nucleus. It includes three steps: initiation, elongation, and
termination.
 This amazing artwork shows a process that takes place in the cells of
all living things: the production of proteins. This process is
called protein synthesis, and it actually consists of two processes — 
transcription and translation. In eukaryotic cells, transcription takes
place in the nucleus. During transcription, DNA is used as a template
to make a molecule of messenger RNA (mRNA). The molecule of
mRNA then leaves the nucleus and goes to a ribosome in the
cytoplasm, where translation occurs. During translation, the 
genetic code in mRNA is read and used to make a protein. These two
processes are summed up by the central dogma of molecular biology: 
DNA → RNA → Protein. 
 PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
C:\Users\Reyster\Desktop\The Central Dog
ma of Biology.pdf

REFERENCES:
https://byjus.com/biology/nucleolus/
http://www.biology4kids.com/files/cell_er.html
https://www.britannica.com/science/Golgi-apparatus
https://www.britannica.com/science/mitochondrion
https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-college-human
-biology-flexbook-2.0/section/5.6/primary/lesson/prote
in-synthesis-chumbio
 
THANK YOU!