The Living Cell

Prokaryotes
• Organisms that do not possess a true nucleus and membrane – bound
organelles
• Example: BACTERIA
Eukaryotes
• Possess a true nucleus and membrane – bound organelles
• Usually multicellular organisms and include plants, animals, fungi,
parasites and algae.
Medically Important Microorganisms
• VIRUSES - OBLIGATE INTRACELLULAR
PARASITES
• acellular organisms.
• Possess only a single nucleic acid, either DNA or
RNA, but never both.
• Lack the necessary cellular parts that can allow
them to replicate independently from the host
• Lack the genes and enzymes that are necessary
for energy production
• Outer surface is called capsid, composed of
repeating sub – units called capsomeres
Classification of Virus
1) Type of nucleic acid
2) Shape of the capsid (icosahedral, helical,
polyhedral or complex)
3) Number of capsomeres
4) Size of capsid
5) Presence or absence of envelope
6) Type of host they infect
7) Type of disease they produce
8) Target cell or tropism
9) Immunologic or antigenic properties
Bacteriophages
• Special type of viruses that primarily infect
bacteria
• Obligate intracellular parasites
• Similarly shaped like other viruses
• May also be classified based on nucleic acid they
possess
• Play a role in the acquisition of virulence factors
of certain bacteria as well as in transfer of
genetic material from one bacterium to another
• Example: Diphtheria toxin of Cornybacterium
Diphtheriae)
Bacteria
• Prokaryotic cell with majority
having an outer covering called cell
wall mainly composed of
peptidoglycan
• Possess both DNA and RNA
• Have NUCLEOID instead of true
NUCLEUS, smaller ribosomes and
lack mitochondria
 Classification of Bacteria
• Gram Negative Bacteria with cell wall
(ex. E.coli)
• Gram Positive Bacteria with cell wall
(ex. Staphylococcus aureus)
• Acid – Fast bacteria with lipid – rich
cell wall ( Mycobacterium
Tuberculosis)
• Bacteria without cell wall
(Mycoplasma)
Bacterial Morphology
3 basic shapes
• Coccus (cocci) – spherical or round
• Ex. Staph and strep
• Arranged – singly, in pairs (Diplococci), in
chains (streptococci), in cluster
(staphylococci) in groups of four (tetrad), in
groups of eight (octad)
• bacillus (bacilli) – Rod – shaped
• Ex. Escherichia coli, salmonella
• Coccobacilli – very short elongated cocci
• spiral – shaped or curved.
• Comma – shaped (Vibrio Cholerae)
• Spiral (Treponema Pallidum)
• Club – shaped (Corynebacterium Diphtheriae)
Bacterial Envelope Structure
• Glycocalyx (capsule/slime layer)
• Outermost covering of some bacteria
• Gelatinous substance external to the cell wall
• Composed of polysaccharide or polypeptide or both
• Protects the bacteria from dehydration and phagocytosis
• Cell wall
• Sometimes called Murein Sacculus
• Principal component is Peptidoglycan (murein/mucopeptide)
• Multi – layered in gram (+) bacteria and single – layered in gram (-)
• Protects bacteria from osmotic damage and plays an important role in cell division
• Gives rigid support and shape to bacteria
Special components of Gram (+) cell wall
• Teichoic acids
• Major surface antigens of Gram (+) organisms and can elicit antibody
response.
• It functions as attachment of the organisms to the host cell
• These also provide tensile strength to gram (+) bacterial cell walls
• Polysaccharides
• Include neutral sugars such as mannose, arabinose, rhamnose and
glucosamine
• Also includes some acidic sugars such as glucuronic acid and mannuronic acid
Special Components of Gram (-) cell walls
• Outer Membrane
• Bi – layered structure, the inner leaflet is composed of LIPOPOLYSACCHARIDE (LPS)
– has complex glycolipid called Lipid A responsible for ENDOTOXIN activity.
• Has special protein channels that allow the passage of small or low – molecular –
weight hydrophilic substances such as sugars and amino acids.
• Inner core – is a polysaccharide made up of repeat units called O antigen – unique
for every species of bacteria
• Lipoprotein – anchor the outer membrane to peptidoglycan layer and
stabilizes the outer membrane
• Periplasmic space – Fluid – filled space between outer membrane and
inner plasma membrane.
• Contains enzyme for the breakdown of large non – transportable molecules into
transportable ones and enzymes that serve to detoxify and inactivate antibiotics.
Acid Fast Cell wall
• Outer layer is LIPID – RICH making it HYDROPHOBIC.
• Cell wall is composed of large amounts of waxes that are known as
MYCOLIC ACIDS
• Inner layer is also made up of PEPTIDOGLYCAN
• Since the cell wall is hydrophobic, acid fast cell wall cannot be gram
stained, it is protected from harsh chemicals such as strong acids and
detergents.
Bacterial Projecting Structures
• Flagella
• Thread – like structures made up entirely of protein sub – unit Flagellin
• Project from capsule and function for motility.
• Four types: Monotrichous (single), Lophotrichous (tuft at one end of bacteria),
amphitrichous (both ends of bacteria) Peritrichous (all around the bacterium). Bacteria
without flagella are called atrichous.
• Pili or Fimbrae
• Rigid surface appendages also function for motility.
• Structural sub – units are called PILINS.
• Function for adherence to cell surface or attachment to another bacterium during a form of
bacterial gene exchange called conjugation
• Axial Filaments (endoflagella) found in spirochetes
• Composed of bundles of fibrils, arise from end of bacterial cell and spiral around the cell.
• Rotate producing movement of the outer sheath of spirochetes propelling them forward
Cytoplasmic membrane
• Also called cell membrane or plasma membrane
• Located beneath the cell wall
• Selectively permeable membrane that allows for transport of
selected solutes
• In aerobic organism, it is the site of electron transport chain and
serves as site of ATP production.
• Also contains enzymes needed for the biosynthesis of DNA, cell wall
components and membrane lipids
Bacterial Internal Structure
• Nucleoid – contains the genetic material ( a single, circular, double
stranded DNA)
• Mesosomes – functions for cell division. Involved in the secretion of
substances produced by bacteria
• Ribosomes – protein synthesis, smaller than eukaryotic ribosomes (70s)
• Granules or Inclusion bodies – storage of food and energy
• Endospores – produced by many bacteria when they are placed in a
hostile environment (sporulation). Composed of DIPICOLINIC ACID
which confers resistance to heat, drying, chemical agents and
radiation. Some gram positive but never gram negative form spores.
Bacterial Growth Requirements
• Nutritional Requirements
• Carbon – structural backbone or skeleton of all organic molecules
Aerobes – require oxygen
• Nitrogen, Sulfur, Phosphorus – for
Obligate synthesis
Anaerobes of proteins
– Cannot survive and
with nucleic acid as well as
ATP Oxygen
• Inorganic Ions – include magnesium, potassium,
Facultative organisms – Can calcium, iron and trace elements for
grow and survive
stability of ribosomes, cellunder
membranes,
both aerobicandandnucleic
anaerobicacids also serve as co – factors
conditions
for enzymes and rigidity ofMicroaerophiles
cell Thermophiles
wall. – able to grow
– grow bestatatlow oxygen
temp higher
• Growth Factors – Vitamintension
B and
but 40
than their
amino
rate of growth is diminished
degrees
acids
Capnophiles – require the addition of carbon
Mesophiles – Require optimal temp 20 – 40
• Physical Requirements dioxidedegrees
to enhance their growth
Psychrophiles – require optimum temp of 10
• Moisture/water
– 20 degrees
• Oxygen
• Temperature
Bacterial physical requirement
• pH
• Acidity or alkalinity of bacterial environment
• Alkalophiles – microorganisms that grow best in pH 8.4 – 9.0
• Neutrophiles – grow best at pH of 6.5 – 7.5
• Acidophiles – require pH of 6.0
• Osmotic Conditions
• Osmotic pressure determined by salt concentration
• Normal microbial cytoplasmic salt concentration is 1%
• Halophiles – require high salt concentration for growth
• Osmophiles – require high osmotic pressure for optimal grwoth
Bacterial Growth
Curve

Period when spores begin

to form Nutrients are depleted and
Period of rapid cell division
toxic wastes accumulate

Period of adjustment for the bacteria

Fungi
• Eukaryotic cells with an outer surface
composed mainly of CHITIN
• Cell Membrane is made up mostly of
ERGOSTEROL (a sterol similar to cholesterol)
• Possess both DNA and RNA
• Have true NUCLEUS enclosed by
nuclear membrane and mitochondria
that function for ATP production.
• Fungal Ribosomes are larger than
bacterial ribosomes
Protozoa
• PARASITES
• Eukaryotic cells that have an outer surface called PELLICLE
• Unicellular, usually divide through BINARY FISSION
• Majority exist in two morphologic forms – cyst (infective stage) and
trophozoites (pathogenic stage)
• Possess DNA and RNA (as in Eukaryotic)
Algae
• Eukaryotic, outer surface consists primarily of
CELLULOSE
• Plant – like organisms most of them have
CHLOROPHYLL and are thus capable of
PHOTOSYNTHESIS.
• Do not possess true roots, stems, and leaves
• Do not produce disease in humans
• Most are beneficial, sources of food, iodine and
other minerals
• Use as fertilizers, emulsifiers and stabilizers for
ice cream and salad dressings
Dinoflagellates
• Unicellular algae
• Important members of
phytoplankton
• Contribute to oxygen in
atmosphere
• Serve as important link to food
chain
• Responsible to “RED TIDE” –
produce neurotoxin causing
PARALYTIC SHELLFISH POISONING