Advanced Mechanics of Materials

Advanced Mechanics of Materials

• Rigid-body statics and dynamics  external behavior of bodies (that is, the
equilibrium and motion of bodies without regard to small deformations
associated with the application of load),
• Mechanics of solids  relationships of external effect (forces and moments)
to internal stresses and strains.
(Advanced Mechanics of Materials and Applied Elasticity by Ugural and
Fenster).

Two different approaches used in solid mechanics are the

• mechanics of materials or elementary theory
• theory of elasticity.

The mechanics of materials focuses mainly on the more or less approximate

solutions of practical problems. The theory of elasticity concerns itself largely
with more mathematical analysis to determine the “exact” stress and strain
distributions in a loaded body. The difference between these approaches is
primarily in the nature of the simplifying assumptions used.

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 Methods of Analysis

We derive relations between load and stress or between load and deflection for a
system or a component (a member) of a system. Our starting point is a description of
the loads on the system, the geometry of the system (including boundary conditions),
and the properties of the material in the system. Generally the load-stress relations
describe either the distributions of normal and shear stresses on a cross section of the
member or the stress components that act at a point in the member. For a given member
subjected to prescribed loads, the load-stress relations are based on the following
requirements:

1. The equations of equilibrium (or equations of motion for bodies not in

equilibrium)

2. The compatibility conditions (continuity conditions) that require deformed

volume

3. The constitutive relations

(Advanced Mechanics of Materials by Boresi and Schmidt)

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 Methods of Analysis

Two different methods are used to satisfy requirements

1. method of mechanics of materials and
2. method of general continuum mechanics.

Often, load-stress and load deflection relations are not derived by general
continuum mechanics methods. Instead, the method of mechanics of materials
is used to obtain either exact solutions or reliable approximate solutions.

In the method of mechanics of materials, the load-stress relations are derived

first.  load-deflection relations for the member.

(Advanced Mechanics of Materials by Boresi and Schmidt)

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 Methods of Analysis

A simple member such as a circular shaft of uniform cross section may be

subjected to complex loads that produce a multiaxial state of stress.
• Complex loads can be reduced to several simple types of load, such as axial,
bending, and torsion.
• The method of mechanics of materials can be used to obtain load-stress
relations for each type of load.
• If the deformations of the member that result from one type of load do not
influence the magnitudes of the other types of loads and if the material
remains linearly elastic for the combined loads, the stress components
resulting from each type of load can be added together (i.e., the method of
superposition may be used).
• In a complex member, each load may have a significant influence on each
component of the state of stress. Then, the method of mechanics of materials
becomes cumbersome, and the use of the method of continuum mechanics
may be more appropriate.

(Advanced Mechanics of Materials by Boresi and Schmidt)

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 Advanced Mechanics of Materials
Mechanics of materials  simplified assumptions so that strain distribution for a
cross section of the member can be determined.
A basic assumption is that plane sections before loading remain plane after loading.
The assumption can be shown to be exact for axially loaded members of uniform cross
sections, for slender straight torsion members having uniform circular cross sections,
and for slender straight beams of uniform cross sections subjected to pure bending. The
assumption is approximate for other problems.

Many of the problems will have multiaxial states of stress of such complexity that the
mechanics of materials method cannot be employed to derive load-stress and load-
deflection relations. Therefore, in such cases, the method of continuum mechanics is
used.
When we consider small displacements and linear elastic material behavior only, the
general method of continuum mechanics reduces to the method of the theory of linear
elasticity.

(Advanced Mechanics of Materials by Boresi and Schmidt)

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 Body force, surface force

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 Body force, surface force and stress vector

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 Body force, surface force and stress vector

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 State of stress at a point
• An infinite number of planes can be drawn through a point, we get an
infinite number of stress vectors acting at a given point, each stress vector
characterised by the corresponding plane on which it is acting.

• The totality of all stress vectors acting on every possible plane passing
through the point is defined to be the state of stress at the point.

• Knowledge of this state of stress is important for a designer in

determining the critical planes and the respective critical stresses.

• If the stress vectors acting on three mutually perpendicular planes passing

through the point are known, we can determine the stress vector acting on
any other arbitrary plane at that point.

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 Normal and Shear stress components

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 Rectangular stress components
The normal to this plane is parallel to the x axis and hence, the plane is called the x
plane. The resultant stress vector at P acting on this will be Tx.
This vector can be resolved into three components parallel to the x, y, z axes.
The component parallel to the x axis, being normal to the plane, will be denoted by σx
(instead of by σx). The components parallel to the y and z axes are shear stress
components and are denoted by τxy and τxz respectively.
The first subscript x indicates the plane on which the stresses are acting and the second
subscript (y or z) indicates the direction of the component.

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 Rectangular stress components

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 Stress components on an arbitrary plane

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 Stress Components

At a point P in a body, σx = 10,000 N/cm2 (1020 kgf/cm2), σy = –5,000 N/cm2

(–510 kgf/cm2), σz = –5,000 N/cm2, τxy = τyz = τzx = 10,000 N/cm2. Determine
the stresses on a plane that is equally inclined to all the three axes.

𝑇 𝑖 =𝜎 𝑖𝑗 𝑛 𝑗
 

  +

  𝑇𝑥 𝜎 𝑥𝑥 𝜎𝑥 𝑦 𝜎 𝑥 𝑧 𝑛𝑥

[ ][𝑇 𝑦 = 𝜎 𝑦𝑥
𝑇𝑧 𝜎 𝑧𝑥
𝜎 𝑦𝑦
𝜎 𝑧𝑦 ][ ]
𝜎 𝑦𝑧 𝑛 𝑦
𝜎 𝑧𝑧 𝑛 𝑧

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 Differential equations of equilibrium

Consider a small rectangular element with sides Δx, Δy and Δz isolated from
its parent body. Since in the limit, we are going to make Δx, Δy and Δz tends
to zero, we shall deal with average values of the stress components on each
face

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 Differential equations of equilibrium

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 Principal stresses

From the strength or failure considerations of materials, answers to the

following questions are important:
Are there any planes passing through the given point on which the resultant
stresses are wholly normal (in other words, the resultant stress vector is along
the normal?)
What is the plane on which the normal stress is a maximum and what is its
magnitude?
What is the plane on which the tangential or shear stress is a maximum and
what it is its magnitude?

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 Principal stresses

The three roots of the cubic equation can be designated as σ 1, σ2 and σ3.
Substituting any one of these three solutions in Eqs, we can solve for the
corresponding nx, ny and nz. in order to avoid the trivial solution, the condition

is used along with any two equations from the set of Eqs

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 Stress invariants

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 Principal stresses and planes

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 Principal stresses and planes

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 Principal stresses and planes

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 Principal stresses and planes

• For the given states of stress, determine the principal stresses and their
•  directions

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 Principal stresses and planes

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 Mohr’s Circles for 3D state of Stress

A point Q with co-ordinates (σ, τ) representing the values of the normal and
shearing stress on the plane n
The point Q (σ, τ) for all possible n will lie within the shaded area. This region
is called Mohr’s stress plane π and the three circles are known as Mohr’s
circles.

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 Planes of maximum shear

for the case σ1 > σ2 > σ3, the maximum shear stress is 0.5 (σ1 – σ3) = τ2 and the
associated normal stress is 0.5 (σ1 + σ3)

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 Octahedral stresses

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 Strain

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 Deformations

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 Deformation in the neighborhood of a point

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 Deformation in the neighbourhood of a point

Before deformation, the segment PQ had components Δx, Δy and Δz along the
three axes. After deformation, the segment P’Q’ has components Δx + Δu x,
Δy+ Δuy , Δz + Δuz along the three axes. Terms like,

Are important in the analysis of strain.These are the gradients of the

displacement components (at a point P) in x,y and z directions. One can
represent these in the form of a matrix called the displacement-gradient matrix
as

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 Change in length of a linear element

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 State of strain at a point

• The totality of all linear strains in every possible direction PQ defines the
state of strain at point P. This definition is similar to that of the state of
stress at a point. Since all that is required to determine the state of strain
are the six rectangular strain components, these six components are said to
define the state of strain at a point. We can write this as

• To maintain consistency, we could have written

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 State of strain at a point

• But as it is customary to represent shear strain by γ, we have retained this

•  notation. In the theory of elasticity is written as e ,i.e.
xy xy

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Interpretation of γxy, γyz, γxz as Shear Strain Components

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 Principal Axes of Strain and Principal Strains

What is the direction (nx, ny, nz) along which the strain is an extremum (i.e.
maximum or minimum) and what is the corresponding extremum value?
According to calculus, in order to find the maximum or the minimum, we
would have to equate

To zero, if nx, ny and nz were all independent. However nx, ny and nz are not all
independent since they are related by the condition.

Taking nx and ny as independent and differentiating Eq. with respect to nx and

ny we get

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 Principal Axes of Strain and Principal Strains

Differentiating εpq with respect to nx and ny and equating them to zero for
extremum

Denoting the right hand side expression in the above two equations by 2ε and
rearranging

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 Principal Axes of Strain and Principal Strains

One can solve these Eqs to get the values of nx, ny and nz, which determine
the direction along which the relative extension is an extremum. Let us
assume that this direction has been determined. Multiplying the first equation
by nx, second by ny and the third by nz and adding them, we get

If we impose the condition

The right hand side becomes equal to 2ε

This means that in Eqs. the values of nx, ny and nz determine the direction
along which the relative extension is an extremum and further, the value of
ε is equal to this extremum.
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 Principal Axes of Strain and Principal Strains

the above set of equations is homogeneous in nx, ny and nz. For the
existence of a non-trivial solution, the determinant of its coefficient must be
equal to zero, i.e.

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 Principal Axes of Strain and Principal Strains

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 Principal Axes of Strain and Principal Strains

1. The displacement field in micro units for a body is given by

Determine the principal strains at (3, 1, –2) and the direction of the minimum principal
strain.
2.The following state of strain exists at a point P

a) In the direction PQ having direction cosines nx = 0.6, ny = 0

and nz = 0.8, determine εpq
b) Determine the principal strains and the directions of the
maximum and minimum principal strains.

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 Compatibility Conditions

• It was observed that the displacement of a point in a solid body can be

represented by a displacement vector u, which has components, u x, uy, uz

• along the three axes x,y and z respectively. The deformation at a point is
specified by the six strain components,

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 Compatibility Conditions

• The three displacement components and the six rectangular strain

components are related by the six strain displacement relations of Cauchy.
• The determination of the six strain components from the three
displacement functions is straightforward since it involves only
differentiation.
• However, the reverse operation, i.e. determination of the three
displacement functions from the six strain components is more
complicated since it involves integrating six equations to obtain three
functions.
• One may expect, therefore, that all the six strain components cannot be
prescribed arbitrarily and there must exist certain relations among these.
• The total number of these relations are six and they fall into two groups.

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 Compatibility Conditions

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 Compatibility Conditions

• These six equations are called Saint-Venant’s equations of

compatibility.
• We can give a geometrical interpretation to the above equations.
• For this purpose, imagine an elastic body cut into small
parallelepipeds and give each of them the deformation defined by
the six strain components.
• It is easy to conceive that if the components of strain are not
connected by certain relations, it is impossible to make a
continuous deformed solid from individual deformed
parallelepipeds.
• Saint-Venant’s compatibility relations furnish these conditions.
• Hence, these equations are also known as continuity equations.

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 Stress strain relations

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 Stress strain relations for Isotropic materials

• We now make a further assumption that the ideal material we are dealing
with has the same properties in all directions so far as the stress-strain
relations are concerned.
• This means that the material we are dealing with is isotropic, i.e. it has no
directional property.
• Care must be taken to distinguish between the assumption of isotropy,
which is a particular statement regarding the stress-strain properties at a
given point, and that of homogeneity, which is a statement that the stress-
strain properties, whatever they may be, are the same at all points.
• For example, timber of regular grain is homogeneous but not isotropic.
• Assuming that the material is isotropic, one can show that only two
independent elastic constants are involved in the generalised statement of
Hooke’s law.

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 Stress strain relations for Isotropic materials

• Since in an isotropic material, a small rectangular box the faces of which

are subjected to pure normal stresses, will remain rectangular after
deformation (no asymmetrical deformation), the normal to these faces
coincide with the principal strain axes.
• Hence, for an isotropic material, one can relate the principal stresses σ1, σ2
and σ3 with the three principal strains ε1, ε2 and ε3 through suitable elastic
constants.
• Let the axes x, y and z coincide with the principal stress and principal
strain directions.

the constants λ and μ are called lame’s coefficient. Thus there are only two
elastic constants involved in the relations between the principal stresses and
principal strains for an isotropic material. μ is the modulus of rigidity.

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 Stress strain relations for Isotropic materials

For an isotropic material, the 36 elastic constants involved in the Generalised

Hooke’s law, can be reduced to two independent elastic constants.
These two elastic constants are Lame’s coefficients λ and μ . The second
coefficient μ is the same as the rigidity modulus G.
In terms of these, the other elastic constants can be expressed as

A material having poisson’s ratio equal to ½ is known as an incompressible

material, since the volumetric strain for such an isotropic material is zero.

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 Stress strain relations for Isotropic materials

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 Stress strain relations for Isotropic materials

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 Stress strain relations for Isotropic materials

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 Stress strain relations for Isotropic materials

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 Displacement Equations of Equilibrium

 These are known as Lame’s displacement equations of equilibrium.

 They involve a synthesis of the analysis of stress, analysis of strain and
the relations between stresses and strains.
 These equations represent the mechanical, geometrical and physical
characteristics of an elastic solid.
 Consequently, Lame’s equations play a very prominent role in the
solutions of problems.

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 Problems for practice

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 Problems for practice

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