Cerebral Cortex

1. Granular (stellate cells)…(find the wrong

answer)
• A. have short axons
• B. short distance transmission
• C. Functions mainly as interneurons.
• D. they are the neurons that give rise to the long nerve
fibers that go all the way to the spinal cord.
• E. the sensory, association, and motor areas have large
concentrations of them.
 2. What kind of neuritransmiiters
release Granular (stellate cells)? (2
right answers)

a. Acetylcholine
b. GABA
c. Dopamine
d. Glutamate
e. Serotonine
 The granular neurons
• The granular neurons generally have short axons ,
• function mainly as interneurons - that transmit neural signals
only short distances within the cortex .
• Some are excitatory, releasing the excitatory neurotransmitter
glutamate;
• others are inhibitory and release the inhibitory
neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA).
• The sensory areas of the cortex, the association areas between
sensory and motor areas, have large concentrations of these
granule cells.
3. . Pyramidal cells.. (choose 2 right answers)

• A. give rise to most input to the cerebral

cortex
• B. Give rise to most of the output of the
cerebral cortex.
• C. The pyramidal cells are larger than fusiform
cells
• The pyramidal cells are smaller than fusiform
cells
 The pyramidal and fusiform cells
• The pyramidal and fusiform cells give rise to almost all
the output fibers from the cortex.
• The pyramidal cells are larger and more numerous than
the fusiform cells.
• They are the source of the long, large nerve fibers that go
all the way to the spinal cord.
• They also give rise to most of the large subcortical
association fiber bundles that
pass from one major part of the
brain to another.
 4. Function of layer IV of the cortex…
• A. Perform most of the intracortical association
functions. 
• B. Receive most of the incoming specific sensory signals.
•  
C. Most of the output signals leave the cortex through
neurons located in these layers.
•  
• D. the large fibers to the brain stem and spinal cord arise
from here)
 5. Function of layers I-III of the cortex
• A. Perform most of the intracortical association
functions. 
• B. Receive most of the incoming specific
sensory signals. 
C. Most of the output signals leave the cortex
through neurons located in these layers. 
• D. the large fibers to the brain stem and spinal
cord arise from here)
6. Function of layers V and VI of the cortex

• A. Perform most of the intracortical

association functions. 
• B. Receive most of the incoming specific
sensory signals. 
C. Most of the output signals leave the cortex
through neurons located in these layers. 
7. Function of layer VI of the cortex
• A. Perform most of the intracortical association
functions. 
• B. Receive most of the incoming specific sensory
signals. 
C. Most of the output signals leave the cortex through
neurons located in these layers. 
• D. the large fibers to the brain stem and spinal cord
arise from here
• E. the large fibers to the thalamus
8. Function of layer V of the cortex
• A. Perform most of the intracortical association
functions. 
• B. Receive most of the incoming specific
sensory signals. 
C. Most of the output signals leave the cortex
through neurons located in these layers. 
• D. the large fibers to the brain stem and spinal
cord arise from here
• The most incoming specific sensory
signals from the body terminate in
cortical layer IV.
• Most of the output signals leave the
cortex through neurons located in
layers V and VI;
• the very large fibers to the brain stem
and cord arise generally in layer V;
• and the tremendous numbers of
fibers to the thalamus arise in layer
VI.
• Layers I, II, and III perform most of
the intracortical association functions,
with especially large numbers of
neurons in layers II and III making
short horizontal connections with
adjacent cortical areas.
 9. Which of the sensory pathways don’t go
through the thalamus?
a. Visual pathways
b. Olfactory pathways
c. Auditory nervous pathways
d. neuronal pathways for transmission of taste
signals
• When the thalamus is damaged along with the cortex,
the loss of cerebral function is far greater than when the
cortex alone is damaged because thalamic excitation of
the cortex is necessary for almost all cortical activity.
• the cortex operates in close association with the
thalamus and for this reason, the thalamus and the
cortex together are sometimes called the
thalamocortical system.
• Almost all pathways from the sensory receptors and
sensory organs to the cortex pass through the thalamus,
except sensory pathways of olfaction.
 10. The three most important association
areas (choose the wrong answer)
• A. Prefrontal association area
• B. supplementary area
• C. The parietoccipitotemporal association area
• D. The limbic association area 
 Association Areas
• There are some association areas
in the cortex - they receive and
analyze signals simultaneously from
multiple regions of both the motor
and sensory cortices, and from
subcortical structures. But the
association areas have their
specializations. Important
association areas include
• (1) the parieto-occipitotemporal
association area,
• (2) the prefrontal association area,
and
• (3) the limbic association area.
11. The location of the Parieto-occipitotemporal
association area

• A. . Between the premotor cortex anteriorly, the visual

cortex posteriorly, and the supplementary cortex laterally.
B. . Between the somatosensory cortex anteriorly, the
visual cortex laterally, and the auditory cortex posteriorly.
C. . Between the primary motor cortex posteriorly, the
visual cortex anteriorly, and the auditory cortex laterally.
D. Between the somatosensory cortex anteriorly, the visual
cortex posteriorly, and the auditory cortex laterally.
Parieto-occipitotemporal Association Area

• This association area lies in the parietal and

occipital cortical space, posterior to the
somatosensory cortex, anterior to the visual
cortex, and near to the auditory cortex.
12. The functional subareas of the Parieto-occipitotemporal
association area (choose the wrong answer)

• A. Analysis of the spatial coordinates of the

body 
• B. Area for language
comprehension\Wernicke's area
• C. Broca’s area
• D. Area for initial processing of visual language
(reading) - (Angular gyrus area)
• E. Area for naming objects
 the parieto-occipitotemporal association area has its
own functional subareas

• 1. Analysis of the Spatial

Coordinates of the Body
• 2. Wernicke's Area Is
Important for Language
Comprehension
• 3. Angular Gyrus Area Is
Needed for Initial Processing
of Visual Language (Reading)

• 4. Area for Naming Objects

 13. The function of the area for Analysis of the
spatial coordinates of the body 
• A. The most important region of the brain for higher
intellectual functioning, because almost all such
intellectual functions are language based
• B. Area for initial processing of visual language (reading)
• C. Computes the coordinates of the visual, auditory, and
body surroundings
D. Area for naming objects
 1. Analysis of the Spatial Coordinates of the Body

An area begins in the posterior

parietal cortex and extends into
the superior occipital cortex .
It provides continuous analysis of
the spatial coordinates of all parts
of the body and the surroundings
of the body.
This area receives visual sensory
information from the posterior
occipital cortex and
somatosensory information from
the anterior parietal cortex.
From all this information, it
computes the coordinates of the
visual, auditory, and body
surroundings.
 14. WERNICLE’S AREA IS…

• A. Area for Analysis of the spatial coordinates

of the body 
• B. Area for language comprehension
• C. Area for initial processing of visual language
(reading)
• D. Area for naming objects
2. Wernicke's Area Is Important for Language Comprehension
This is The major area for
language comprehension,
It lies behind the primary
auditory cortex in the
posterior part of the
superior temporal gyrus.
It is the most important
region of the entire brain for
higher intellectual function
because almost all such
intellectual functions are
language based.
 15. WHAT area lies in the Angular gyrus?

A. Area for Analysis of the spatial coordinates

of the body 
B. Area for language
comprehension\Wernicke's area
C. Area for initial processing of visual language
(reading)
D. Area for naming objects
 3. Angular Gyrus Area
It is Needed for Initial Processing of
Visual Language (Reading)
It lies posterior to the language
comprehension area
It is a visual association area that
directs visual information conveyed
by words read from a book into
Wernicke's area, the language
comprehension area.
In its absence, a person can still
have excellent language
comprehension through hearing but
not through reading.
 16. Input of the Prefrontal association cortex
A. Much from subcortical bundles of fibers
connecting the parieto-occipitotemporal
association area with the prefrontal area. 
B. Much from subcortical bundles of fibers
connecting the limbic association area with the
prefrontal area. 
C. Much from subcortical bundles of fibers
connecting supplementary area with the
prefrontal area. 
 17. Function of the prefrontal association
area

A. Plan motor movements and carry out thought processes.

B. Behavior and Emotion
C. Capability to comprehend and interpret body language and
intonation 
D. The most important region of the brain for higher
intellectual functioning, because almost all such intellectual
functions are language based
 Prefrontal Association Area
the prefrontal association area functions in close association with the motor
cortex to plan complex patterns and sequences of motor movements.
To help in this function, it receives input through a massive subcortical nerve
fibers connecting the parieto-occipitotemporal association area with the
prefrontal association area.
Through Much from subcortical bundles of fibers connecting the parieto-
occipitotemporal association area with the prefrontal area. gh these fibers, the
prefrontal cortex receives much preanalyzed sensory information, especially
information on the spatial coordinates of the body that is necessary for
planning movements.
Much of the output from the prefrontal area into the motor control system
passes through the caudate -thalamic
feedback circuit for motor planning, which
provides many of the sequential and parallel
components of movement stimulation.
18. . Broca's area (choose the wrong answer)

A. Provide the neural circuitry for word formation,

B. located partly in the prefrontal association
cortex and partly in the premotor area.
C. Found in the Anterior pole of the temporal lobe
D. works in close association with the Wernicke's
language comprehension
area.
 Broca's Area (Word Formation)

Broca's area is located partly in the posterior lateral

prefrontal cortex and partly in the premotor area.
It is named word formation area. It expresses even the short
phrases.
This area works in close association with the Wernicke's
language comprehension
area.
 19. Location of the Limbic association area
(choose the wrong answer)
A. Anterior pole of the temporal lobe
B. In the ventral portion of the frontal lobe 
C. In the cingulate gyrus (deep in the longitudinal
fissure on the midsurface of each cerebral
hemisphere)
D. behind the primary auditory cortex in the posterior
part of the superior temporal gyrus.
 Limbic Association Area

• This area is found

anterior the temporal
lobe,
• in the ventral portion
of the frontal lobe,
• and in the cingulate
gyrus lying deep in the
longitudinal fissure on
the midsurface of each
cerebral hemisphere.
 20. Functions of the Limbic association
area (find the wrong answer)
A. Behavior
B. Emotion
C. Language comprehension
D. Motivation
 21. Prosophenosia

A. Inability to recognize faces

B. A loss of the ability to move
C. severe dementia develops along with the
motor dysfunctions
D. an inability to perform rapidly alternating
movements
 Area for Recognition of Faces

prosopagnosia is inability to recognize faces.

This occurs in people who have extensive damage on the
medial undersides of both occipital lobes and along the
medioventral surfaces of the temporal lobes.
The occipital portion of this facial recognition area is
contiguous with the visual cortex, and the temporal portion is
closely associated with the limbic system that has to do with
emotions, brain activation, and control of one's behavioral
response to the
environment.
 22. In how many percent of people is the
dominante hemisphere on the left side?

A. 10%
B. 45%
C. 95%
D. 100%
 Concept of the Dominant Hemisphere
• The general functions of Wernicke's area and the angular
gyrus, the functions of the speech and motor control areas
are usually much more highly developed in one cerebral
hemisphere than in the other.
• This hemisphere is called the dominant hemisphere.
• In about 95 percent of all people, the left hemisphere is the
dominant one.
• if for some reason left side area is damaged in very early
childhood, the opposite side of the brain will usually develop
dominant characteristics.
 23. auditory receptive aphasia and visual
receptive aphasia (choose the wrong answer)
A. inability to understand the spoken word or
the written word.
B. word deafness
C. word blindness
D. Dyslexia
E. Wernicle’s aphasia
 Sensory Aspects of Communication

destruction of portions of the auditory or

visual association areas of the cortex can
result in inability to understand the spoken
word or the written word.
These effects are called auditory receptive
aphasia and visual receptive aphasia or,
more commonly, word deafness and word
blindness (also called dyslexia).

Aphasia is the disturbance in formulation and comprehension

of language
24. What is the wernicle’s aphasia?
A. inability to understand the spoken word or
the written word
B. People are unable to interpret the thought
that is expressed
C. the person is almost totally demented for
language understanding or communication
 Wernicke's Aphasia
• Some people are capable of understanding either the
spoken word or the written word but are unable to
interpret the thought that is expressed.
• It is the result of the lession of the Wernicke's area in the
dominant hemisphere.
• Therefore, this type of aphasia
is called Wernicke's aphasia.
When the lesion in Wernicke's area
is widespread the person is likely to be
almost totally demented for language
understanding or communication
and therefore is said to have global aphasia.
 Loss of Broca's Area Causes Motor Aphasia
• Sometimes a person is capable of deciding what he
or she wants to say but cannot make the vocal
system emit words instead of noises.
• This effect, called motor aphasia, results from
damage to Broca's speech area.
• the skilled motor patterns for control of the larynx,
lips, mouth,
respiratory system, and other
accessory muscles of
speech are all initiated from this
area.
25. The function of the corpus callosum

A. Connects midbrain and pons

B. Connects temporal and frontal lobes
C. provides abundant bidirectional neural
connections between f the two cerebral
hemispheres
Fibers in the corpus callosum provide bidirectional neural
connections between the two cerebral hemispheres
except for the anterior portions of the temporal lobes;
these temporal areas, including especially the amygdala, are
interconnected by fibers that pass through the anterior
commissure.
 26. Negative memory (choose the wrong
answer)
A. The capability of the brain to ignore
information that is of no consequence.
B. Achieved by inhibition of the synaptic
pathways.
C. This effect or phenomenon is called
habituation. 
D. The phenomenon is called memory
sensitization.
Positive and Negative Memory-"Sensitization"
or "Habituation" of Synaptic Transmission
probably the greater share of our memories is negative, not
positive.
our brain is overfilled with sensory information from all our
senses.
If our minds attempted to remember all this information, the
memory ability of the brain would be rapidly exceeded.
And so, the brain has the ability to learn to ignore information
that is of no consequence.
This results from inhibition of the synaptic pathways for this
type of information;
the resulting effect is called habituation. This is a type of
negative memory.
 27. Positive memory (choose the wrong
answer)
A. for incoming information that causes important
consequences such as pain or pleasure, the brain has a
different automatic ability of enhancing and storing the
memory traces.
B. It results from facilitation of the synaptic pathways,
C. The capability of the brain to ignore information that is of
no consequence.
D. the process is called memory sensitization.
E. special areas in the basal limbic regions of the brain
determine whether information is important or
unimportant
 cont
Conversely, for incoming information that causes important
consequences such as pain or pleasure,
the brain has a different automatic ability of enhancing and
storing the memory traces.
This is positive memory.
It results from facilitation of the synaptic pathways,
and the process is called memory sensitization.
special areas in the basal limbic regions of the brain
determine whether information is important or unimportant.
 28. Short-term memory
A. includes memories that last for seconds or at
most minutes unless they are converted into
longer-term memories;
B. last for days to weeks but then go out;
C. once stored, can be recalled up to years.
 Classification of Memories

1. short-term memory, which includes memories that

last for seconds or at most minutes unless they are
converted into longer-term memories;
2. intermediate long-term memories, which last for
days to weeks but then go out;
3. long-term memory, which, once stored, can be
recalled up to years.
 29. Working memory
A. short-term memory,
B. intermediate long-term memories,
C. long-term memory,
 Working memory
• In addition to this general classification
of memories, we have another type of
memory, called "working memory,"
which includes mainly short-term
memory that is used during the course
of intellectual reasoning but is
terminated as each stage of the problem
is resolved.
30. Anterograde amnesia (choose the wrong
answer)
A. these people have no ability thereafter for
storing declarative types of memory in long-
term memory, or in intermediate memory
lasting longer than a few minutes.
B. these people are unable to establish new
long-term memories of those types of
information that are the basis of intelligence.
C. Inability to Recall Memories from the Past
Role of Specific Parts of the Brain in the Memory Process - hippocampus

The hippocampus is the most medial portion of the temporal

lobe cortex.
The 2 hippocampi have been removed for the treatment of
epilepsy in a few patients.
This procedure does not seriously affect the person's memory
for information stored in the brain before removal of the
hippocampi.
But after removal, these people have no ability thereafter for
storing declarative types of memory in long-term memory, or
in intermediate memory lasting longer than a few minutes.
Therefore, these people are unable to establish new long-
term memories of those types of information that are the
basis of intelligence. This is called anterograde amnesia.