ETHERNET

 In 1985, the computer society of IEEE started a project called

project 802. to set standards to enable intercommunication
among equipment from variety of manufactures.
 IEEE has subdivided the data link layer into 2 sub layer
 Logical Link control(LLC)
 Media Access control(MAC)
• Logical Link Control(LLC):
In project IEEE 802, flow control, error control and part of framing duties are collected in to
one sub layer called LLC.
Media Access Control(MAC): It define specific access method for each LAN.
GENERATION OF ETHERNET(TYPES)
 Ethernet gone through 4 generation:
 Standard Ethernet(10Mbps)
 Fast Ethernet(100Mbps)
 Gigabit Ethernet(1Gbps)
 Ten gigabit Ethernet(10Gbps)

Standard Ethernet Frame Format:

 Preamble- Alert Receiver.
 SFD(start frame Delimiter) :used for synchronize the data
transmission and receiver. Used to signal as beginning of
frame.
 CRC- Error Detection.

1.Ethernet implementation:
1.10Base 5- the name derived from size of cable. It is also known as
thick net or thick Ethernet. A segment of the original 10Base5 cable can
be up to 500m long.
2.10Base 2- It also known as thin-net, cheapnet, cheapernet, thinwire
Ethernet or thin Ethernet. In this “10” means the network operates at 10
Mbps, “Base” refers to the fact that the cable is used in a base band system
and the “2” means that a given segment can be no longer than 200m
3.10 Base T- It is also known as twisted pair Ethernet. The
“T” stands for twisted pair. A 10BaseT segment is
usually limited to less than 100m in length.
4.10 Base F- It uses star topology to connect station to a
hub. The stations are connected to hub by fiber optic
cables.
2.Fast Ethernet(100Mbps):
The fast Ethernet was designed to compute with Lan protocol
such as FDDI or fiber channel.
 Auto Negotiation: It is a new feature added to fast Ethernet. It
allow stations or a hub to negotiate the mode or data rate of
operation.
 To allow station to check hub’s capability.
 It is implemented as – 100Base Tx, 100 Base Fx
3.Giga bit Ethernet(1Gbps): the need for an even higher data rate
resulted in the design of gigabit Ethernet protocol(1000Mbps).
Goals: Upgraded data rate, Make compatible with Standard and
fast Ethernet, use same frame format, Auto negotiation.
Implementation:
1000Base Sx- 1000Mbps speed with Short wire
1000Base Lx- 1000Mbps speed with Long wire
1000Base Cx- 1000Mbps speed with thick copper
1000Base T- 1000Mbps speed with twisted pair cable
4.Ten Gigabit Ethernet(10Gbps): in metro Politian area(MAN),
to extend technology,
with the goal of- upgrade data rate to 10Gbps.
Make compatible with standard, fast, gigabit.
Use same frame format.
RINGS(IEEE 802.5)
 Ring network is like Ethernet a shared media networks. Like
Ethernet, IBM’s Token Ring has a nearly identical IEEE
standard, known as 802.5.
 As the name suggests, a ring network consists of a set
of nodes connected in a ring .
 Data always flows in a particular direction around the ring, with
each node receiving frames from its upstream neighbor and then
forwarding them to its downstream neighbor.
 A ring is viewed as a single shared medium.

Node D

Cabling
Node C Node A

Node B
 The most common early forms of ring network were all token
rings. The word “token” comes from the way access to the
shared ring is managed.
 The idea is that a token, which is really just a special sequence
of bits, circulates around the ring; each node receives and then
forwards the token.

 The problem of node failure may be addressed by connecting

each station into using electromechanical Relays
 MSAU( multiple station Access point) it uses packet of switch
in single box. It look like star topology.
TOKEN RING ACCESS CONTROL:
 The network adaptor for a token ring contains a receiver and a
transmitter.
 Most of the time, when a node is neither the source nor the
destination of the data on the ring, its adaptor is simply
retransmitting the data that its receiver receives.
 Token ring holding Time(THT): It is the time how long a
given node is allowed to hold the token.
Token Ring Maintenance:
 Each IEEE 802.5 token ring has one station designated as a
monitor. The monitor’s job is to ensure the health of the ring by,
for example, making sure that the token is not lost.
 One responsibility of the monitor is to make sure that there is
always a token some where in the ring, either circulating or
currently held by a station.
 To detect missing token, the monitor watch passing token and
maintain a timer equal to maximum possible token time.
Interval Delay= NumStations ×THT+ Ring Latency
Where,
Ring Latency- It is total propagation delay of ring
Token Ring Frame Format:
FDDI(FIBER DISTRIBUTED DATA INTERFACE)
 Although FDDI is similar to IEEE 802.5 in many respects, there
are significant differences.
 For one, FDDI runs on fiber, not copper (although a later
standard, CDDI, was defined to allow copper links to be used).
Working:
FDDI network consists of a dual ring—two independent rings that
transmit data in opposite directions. The second ring is not used
during normal operation but instead comes into play only if the
primary ring fails.
 Each node maintains an estimate of the token rotation time
(TRT)—the expected maximum time for the token to make one
complete trip around the ring.
FDDI RING
FDDI OPERATION
 FDDI operates exactly like token ring, with one difference.
Token ring employs a single wire through all the hosts in the
network.
 In FDDI if a problem occurs on the primary ring, the secondary
can be activated to form a complete data circuit and maintain
service.
 SWITCHED NETWORKS
 A network is a set of connected devices, when we have multiple
devices we have problem in connection. One solution is to make
point to point connection by using topology.
 Eg- Our cell phone is not directly connected to every person.
But instead it connected to an exchange that connect switches,
which create connection.
 A switch is a multipoint, multi output devices that transfer
packets.
 Switches are hardware and / or software devices
capable of creating temporary connections between
two or more devices linked to the switch but not to
each other.
 There are three methods in switching are,

1. Circuit switching
2. Packet switching
3. Message switching
1.CIRCUIT SWITCHING(DATAGRAM NETWORK)
 A circuit Switch consist of switches connected by physical
links in which each link is divided into n-channels.
 There are three phases in circuit switching:
 Establish
 Transfer
 Disconnect

 The telephone message is sent in one go, it is not broken up.

The message arrives in the same order that it was originally
sent.

Node A circuit
with B

Node B End
system
 2.PACKET SWITCHING
 In packet-based Switching networks, the message gets
broken into small data packets.
 These packets are sent out from the computer and they
travel around the network seeking out the most efficient
route to travel as circuits become available.
 This does not necessarily mean that they seek out the
shortest route.

• Used in the Internet

• Data is sent in Packets (header contains control
information e.g., source and destination addresses)

Header Data
 In the datagram approach to packet switching, each packet is
treated independently from all there. Even when one packet
represents just a piece of a multi packet transmission, the
networks treats it as though it existed alone. Packets in this
technology are referred to datagram.
 The datagram approach can be used to deliver four packets
from station A to station X. In this example, all four packets
belong to same message but may go by different paths to reach
their destination.
 VIRTUAL CIRCUIT NETWORK
 A virtual Circuit network is a cross between a circuit and
datagram(packet) switch.
 Two stages of process
 Connection setup
 Data transfer.
VIRTUAL
CIRCUIT
DIAGRAM

21
3.MESSAGE SWITCHING
 Message switching is best known by the descriptive term
store and forward. In this mechanism, a node receives a
message, stores it until the appropriate route is free,
then sends it along.
 Store & forward is considered a switching technique
because there is no direct link between the sender and
receiver of a transmission. A message is delivered to the
node along one path then rerouted along another to its
destination.
 In message switching, the messages are stored & relayed
from secondary storage (disk), while in packet switching
the packets are stored and forwarded from primary
storage (RAM).
 CONNECTING DEVICES:
 To connect LAN we use connecting devices. Connecting devices
can operate in different layer of internet model.
 Connecting device are classified into 5 categories based on layer
they operate.

HUB
 HUB

 A hub is a device that operates only in physical layer.

 It connect the wires which comes from different branches. Eg-
In star topology Ethernet LAN.
 HUB is actually a multi port REPEATER.

REPEATERS:
 A repeater is a device that operate only in physical layer. It
connect segment of LAN.
 BRIDGES
 It operate in both physical and data link layer.
In physical layer device regenerate signal it receives.
In Data link layer act as switch and check source and
designation addresses in the frames.
TYPES OF BRIDGES:
1.Transparent Bridge.
2.Source Routing Bridges.
TRANSPARENT BRIDGES
 Bridge in which station are completely un aware of the bridges
existence. If bridge is added or deleted from system
reconfiguration of station is unnecessary.
 Transparent Bridge must meet 3 criteria.
 Frames must forward from one station to another.
(forwarding)
 The forwarding table is automatically made learning frame
movement in network.(learning)
 Loops in the system must prevented.

 Hence This bridge is called as LEARNING BRIDGE

 Whenever bridge receive a frame on port1 that is
addressed to host A. It should not forward the frame out
to Port2.
 Anytime a frame addressed to host A was received on
port 2, the bridge would forward the frame out on port
1.

Forwarding table maintained

by a bridge
SOURCE ROUTING BRIDGES
 Another way to prevent loops in a system with redundant bridges
is to use source routing bridges.
 In source routing bridge a sending station defines the bridge that
the frame must visit. The address of these bridge are included in
the frame.

 To solve looping problem IEEE specification reuires that bridges

use spanning tree algorithm to create loopless topology.
SPANNING TREE ALGORITHM
 The bridges have to exchange configuration messages with each
other and then decide whether or not they are the root or a
designated bridge based on this message. The configuration
contains three pieces of information.
1. The ID for the bridge that is sending the message
2. The ID for what the sending bridge believes to be the root
bridge
3. The distance, measured in hops, from the sending bridge to
the root bridge.
The algorithm selects as follows. Each bridge has a
unique identifier. In the above example they are labeled
as B1, B2, B3 … the algorithm first elects the bridge
with smallest ID as the root of the spanning tree.
 The root bridge always forwards frames out over all of its
ports. Then each bridge computes the shortest path to root and
notes which of its ports is on this path.
 This port is also elected as the bridge's preferred path to the
root. Finally, all the bridges connected to a given LAN elect a
single designated bridge that will be responsible for forwarding
frames toward the root bridge.
WIRELESS LAN
 Wireless communication is one of the fastest growing
technology.
 IEEE has defined a specification for wireless LAN called IEEE
802.11
Some most used wireless network are,
1.Wireless LAN(IEEE 802.11)
2.Bluetooth (IEEE 802.15)
3.Wifi( IEEE 802.11)
4.WiMax(IEEE 802.16)
WIRELESS LAN(IEEE 802.11)
 IEEE has defined the specification for a wireless LAN called
802.11 which cover the physical and data link layers. It sometimes
called as wireless ETHERNET.
ARCHITECTURE:
The standard define two kind of services.
1)BSS(Basic Service Set)
2)ESS(Extended Service Set)
1)BSS(Basic Service Set):
IEEE defines BSS as the building block of wireless LAN.
A BSS is made up of stationary or mobile wireless station and an
optional central base station known as Access point(AP).
BSS without AP is stand alone network and called as AdHoc network
BSS with AP is called Infrastructure BSS
2)ESS(Extended Service Set):
It is made up of 2 or more BSS with AP. In this case BSS connected
to Distributed system which is a wired LAN

Complication in wireless LAN:

The complication in wireless LAN is referred as Collusion
Avoidance, which is referred as 1.Hidden Station problem 2.
Exposed Station problem.
HIDDEN STATION PROBLEM
 Consider the situation where A and C are both within range of B but not each
other.
 Suppose both A and C want to communicate with B and so they each send it a
frame. A and C are unaware of each other since their signals do not carry that
far.
 These two frames collide with each other at B, but unlike an Ethernet, neither A
or C is aware of this collision. A and C are said to be hidden nodes with respect
to each other.

 By using RTS, CTS handshaking signals the hidden station problem is avoided.
sender transmits a Request to send (RTS) frame to the receiver; the RTS frame
includes a field that indicates how long the sender wants to hold the medium.
The receiver then replies with a clear to send (CTS) frame.
2. EXPOSED STATION PROBLEM
 Station A is transmitting to Station B. Also C has some
data to D. which can be send with out interfering the
transmission A to B.
 C is exposed to Transmission A to B.

This can be avoided using handshaking signals. In following

time diagram.
2.BLUETOOTH (IEEE 802.15)
 Blue tooth is wireless LAN technology designed to connect
devices of different function as telephone, notebook, computer
etc.
 A Bluetooth is AdHoc network i.e., network formed
spontaneously. The device called gadgets find other and make a
network called PICONET.
 IEEE 802.15 standard defined protocol for blue tooth called
PAN(personal area network) operate in small area.
Architecture:
1.PICONET
2.SCATTERNET.
PICONET
 A Bluetooth network is called as piconet or small net. It
has up to 8 station, one of which is primary and rest is
secondary.
 all the secondary are synchronize with primary. (similar to
master and slave)
SCATTERNET
 Piconet combine to form Scatternet.
 A secondary station is one piconet can be primary to another
piconet.
 This station can receive in first piconet(as a secondary) and
deliver them to secondary in second piconet.