DATA COMMUNICATION AND

COMPUTER NETWORKS (ECE-4308)

Protocols and Architectures

Firew Tadele
Outline

 Network Topology
 Protocol Architecture
 OSI Model
 TCP/IP standard
 1. Network topology
 is the arrangement of the various elements (links, nodes, etc.) of a computer.
 is the topological structure of a network, and may be depicted physically or
logically.
 Physical: placement of the network's various components, including device
location and cable installation.
 Logical: shows how data flows within a network, regardless of its physical
design.
 Distances between nodes,, physical interconnections,, transmission rates, and/or
signal types may differ between two networks, yet their topologies may be
identical.
 The common topologies for LANs are bus, tree, ring, star & Mesh.
 Bus Topology
 All stations attach, through a tap, directly to a linear transmission medium, or bus.
 Bus is the central cable -- the main wire -- that connects all devices on a local-area network
(LAN). It is also called the backbone.
 Full-duplex operation between the station and the tap allows data to be transmitted onto the bus
and received from the bus.
 A transmission from any station propagates the length of the medium in both directions and can be
received by all other stations. Its disadvantage.
 At each end of the bus is a terminator, which
absorbs any signal, removing it from the bus.
 CONT.

Main Advantage:
• It's easy to connect a computer and typically it requires less cable
• It is cost effective.
• Used in small networks.
• It is easy to understand.
• Easy to expand joining two cables together.

Main Disadvantage:
• The entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main wire and it can be
difficult to identify the problem, if the network shuts down.
• If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more, the performance of the network
decreases.
• Cable has a limited length.
 Tree topology

 is a generalization of the bus topology.

 The transmission medium is a branching cable with no closed loops.
 The tree layout begins at a point known as the headend.
 The branches in turn may have additional branches to allow quite complex
layouts.
 a transmission from any station propagates throughout
the medium and can be received by all other
stations.
 CONT.

Two problems present in Bus and Tree arrangement:

 First, because a transmission from any one station can be received by all other
stations, it needs to be some way of indicating for whom the transmission is
intended.
 Second, a mechanism is needed to regulate transmission.
 consider that if two stations on the bus attempt to transmit at the same time, their signals
will overlap and become corrupted.
 consider that one station decides to transmit continuously for a long period of time.

 To solve these problems, stations transmit data in small blocks, known as

frames.
CONT.
 Ring Topology

 The network consists of a set of repeaters joined by point-to-point links in a closed loop.
 The repeater is a comparatively simple device, capable of receiving data on one link
and transmitting them, bit by bit, on the other link as fast as they are received, with no
buffering at the repeater.
 The data circulate around the ring in one direction (clockwise or counter clockwise).
 As a frame circulates past all the other stations, the destination station recognizes its
address and copies the frame into a local buffer as it goes by.
 The frame continues to circulate until it returns to the source station, where it is
removed.
 Because multiple stations share the ring, medium access control is needed to determine
at what time each station may insert frames.
 CONT.

Advantages of Ring Topology

 Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding more nodes, as
only the nodes having tokens can transmit data.
 Cheap to install and expand
Disadvantages of Ring Topology
 Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.
 Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.
 Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.
CONT.
 Star Topology

 All computers/devices connect to a central device called hub or switch.

 Hub acts as a repeater for data flow.
 Each device requires a single cable point-to-point connection between the device and hub.
 Most widely implemented
 Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fiber or coaxial cable.
 CONT.

Advantages of Star Topology

 Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.
 Hub can be upgraded easily.
 Easy to troubleshoot, setup and modify.
 Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can work smoothly.
Disadvantages of Star Topology
 Cost of installation is high.
 Expensive to use.
 If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped.
 Performance is based on the capacity of the hub
Mesh Topology

 Each computer connects to every other (Point-to-Point ).

 Mesh has n(n-1)/2 physical channels to link n devices.
 High level of redundancy.
 Robust.
 Not flexible
 CONT.

Advantages of Mesh Topology

• Each connection can carry its own data load.

• It is robust.
• Fault is diagnosed easily.
• Provides security and privacy.

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

• Installation and configuration is difficult.
• Cabling cost is more.
• Bulk wiring is required.
 2. Protocol Architecture

• Is the layered structure of hardware and software that supports the exchange of data
between systems.
• The most widely used protocol architecture is the TCP/IP protocol suite and seven-
layer OSI model.
• Layer architecture:
 simplifies the network design.
 It is easy to debug network applications.
 network management is easier.
• Network layers follow a set of rules, called protocol.
 CONT.

The OSI (Open System Interconnection) Model

 is a model that allows any two different systems to communicate regardless of their
underlying architecture (hardware or software).
 The OSI model is not a protocol; it is model for understanding and designing a
network architecture that is flexible, robust and interoperable.
 The OSI model is built of seven ordered layers:
The interaction between layers in the OSI model
An exchange using the OSI model
Physical Layer

The physical layer is responsible for transmitting individual bits from

one hope (node) to the next.

 The physical layer coordinates the functions required to transmit a bit stream over a
physical medium.
 It also defines the procedures and functions that physical devices and interfaces have
to perform for transmission to occur.
 CONT.

The physical layer is concerned with the following:

 Physical characteristics of interfaces and media: The physical layer defines the
characteristics of the interface between devices and the transmission media,
including its type.
 Representation of the bits: the physical layer data consist of a stream of bits
without any interpretation. To be transmitted, bits must be encoded into signals
–electrical or optical-. The physical layer defines the type of encoding.
 Data rate: The physical layer defines the transmission rate, the number of bits
sent each second.
 Line configuration: the physical layer is concerned with the connection of
devices to the medium.
 Physical topology
 Transmission Mode
Data Link Layer

The data link layer is responsible for transmitting frames from one node to the
next.
 The data link layer is responsible for node-to-node delivery.
 It makes the physical layer appear error free to the upper layer (network layer).
Node-to-node delivery CONT.
 CONT.

Functions of the data link layer:

 Framing. The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the network layer
into data units called frames.
 Physical addressing. If frames are to be distributed to different systems on the network,
the data link layer adds a header to the frame to define the physical address of the
sender (source address) and/or receiver (destination address) of the frame.
 If the frame is intended for a system outside the sender’s network, the receiver address is
the address of the device that connects one network to the next.
 Flow Control. If the rate at which the data are absorbed by the receiver is less than the
rate produced in the sender, the data link layer imposes a flow control mechanism to
prevent overwhelming the receiver.
 Error control. The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by adding
mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames. Error control is normally
achieved through a trailer to the end of the frame.
 Access Control. When two or more devices are connected to the same link, data link layer
protocols are necessary to determine which device has control over the link at any time.
CONT.
 Network Layer

The network layer is responsible for the delivery of packets from the original source
to the final destination.

•The Network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a packet

possible across multiple networks.
•If two systems are connected to the same link, there is usually no need for a network
layer.
 CONT.
Source-to-destination delivery
 CONT.

Functions of the network layer:

 Logical addressing. The physical addressing implemented by the data link layer
handles the addressing problem locally.
 The network layer adds a header to the packet coming from the upper layer, among
other things, includes the logical address of the sender and receiver.
 Routing. When independent networks or links are connected together to create an
internetwork (a network of networks), the connecting devices (called routers or
gateways) route or switch the packets to their final destination.
CONT.
 Transport layer

The transport layer is responsible for delivery of a message from one process to another.

• The transport layer ensures that the whole message arrives intact and in order, overseeing
both error control and flow control at the process-to-process level.
 CONT.

Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message

 CONT.

Functions of the transport layer:

 Port addressing: computer often run several processes (running programs) at the
same time. Process-to-process delivery means delivery from a specific process on
one computer to a specific process on the other.
 The transport layer header include a type of address called port address.
 The network layer gets each packet to the correct computer; the transport layer gets
the entire message to the correct process on that computer.
 Segmentation and reassembly: a message is divided into transmittable segments,
each having a sequence number. These numbers enable the transport layer to
reassemble the message correctly upon arrival at the destination.
 CONT.

 Connection control: The transport layer can be either connectionless or connection-

oriented.
A connectionless transport layer treats each segment as an independent packet and delivers
it to the transport layer at the destination machine.
A connection-oriented transport layer makes a connection with the transport layer at the
destination machine first before delivering the packets. After all the data are transferred, the
connection is terminated.
 Flow control: the transport layer performs a flow control end to end. The data link layer
performs flow control across a single link.
 Error control: the transport layer performs error control end to end. The data link layer
performs error control across a single link.
CONT.
 CONT.

 The session layer is the network dialog controller. It was designed to establish,
maintain, and synchronize the interaction between communicating devices.
 The presentation layer was designed to handle the syntax (data format, coding,
and signal levels) and semantics (control information for coordination and error
handling) of the information exchanged between the two systems. It was designed for
data translation, encryption, decryption, and compression.
 The application layer enables the user to access the network. It provides user
interfaces and support for services such as electronic email, remote file access,
WWW, and so on.
 CONT.
Application layer

The application layer is responsible for providing services to the user.

Summary of duties
 TCP/IP protocol

Application layer

Transport layer

Internet layer

Network access layer

Physical layer
THANK YOU!

QUESTIONS?