Vectors

Objectives

1. find the angle between two given vectors using scalar product;
2. find the equation of a line in vector form, parametric form, Cartesian form, given a
point on the line and a vector parallel to the line;
3. determine whether two lines are parallel, intersecting, or skewed;
4. Find the equation of the plane, in the form xi + yj + zk = d, r.n = d, given a point in the
plane and the normal to the plane.
 Vectors
You need to know how to use Cartesian Find the distance from the origin to the point P(4, 2, 5)
coordinates in 3 dimensions z

Cartesian coordinates in three

dimensions are usually referred to as the y
x, y and z axes, each at right-angles to
the other.
5
Coordinates in 3 dimensions are given in
the form (x, y, z)
4 2
z
x

y You can use the 3D version of Pythagoras’ Theorem

 The distance from the origin to the point (x, y, z)
Imagine the x and y-axes is given by:
have fallen down flat, and
2 2 2
the z-axis sticks up
vertically out of the
√
  𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧
origin…
¿  √ 4 2 +22 +5 2
x
¿  6.71 (2dp) 5E
 Vectors
You need to know how to use Cartesian Find the distance between the points A(1, 3, 4) and
coordinates in 3 dimensions B(8, 6, -5)

Cartesian coordinates in three First calculate the vector

dimensions are usually referred to as the  𝐴𝐵=¿ A0+0B from A to B
x, y and z axes, each at right-angles to
the other.   +

Coordinates in 3 dimensions are given in

the form (x, y, z)   7
z ¿ 3
−9( )
y Then use 3D
¿  𝐴𝐵∨¿ √  72 +32+(− 9)2 Pythagoras

¿  √ 139
¿  11.8 (1dp)
x
5E
 Vectors
You can extend the two dimensional The points A and B have position vectors 4i + 2j + 7k
vector results to 3 dimensions, using k and 3i + 4j – k respectively. Find |AB| and show that
as the unit vector parallel to the z- triangle OAB is isosceles.
axis
 𝐴𝐵=𝒃 − 𝒂 Find the vector AB
 The vectors i, j and k are unit
 𝐴𝐵= 3 4
vectors parallel to the x, y and z-
axes in the increasing directions ( ) ()
4 −
−1
2
7
−1
 𝐴𝐵=
 The vector xi + yj + zk can be
written as a column matrix: ( )
2
−8

  𝑥
()𝑦
𝑧
¿  𝐴𝐵∨¿ √ 69
2 2
¿  𝐴𝐵∨¿ √(− 1) +2 +(− 8)
2
Now find the
magnitude of AB

 The modulus (magnitude) of xi + yj +

zk is given by: ¿  𝑂𝐴∨¿ √ 42 +22 +72
Find the magnitude
2 2 2 ¿𝑂𝐴∨¿
  √ 69 of OA and OB using
√
  𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 their position
¿  𝑂𝐵∨¿ √ 32 +4 2+(−1)2 vectors

¿𝑂𝐵∨¿
  √ 26 Isosceles as 2 vectors are equal… 5F
 Parallel Vectors

• Two vectors u and v are parallel if

Equal Vectors
 .

Unit Vectors

• A unit vector is a vector of length 1. A unit

vector in the direction of v is given by
 Scalar Dot Product
You need to know the definition of the
scalar product of two vectors in 2 or 3
dimensions, and how it can be used to
calculate the angle between 2 vectors

The scalar product of two vectors a and b

is written as a.b (‘a dot b’) and is defined
by:

𝒂  . 𝒃=|𝒂|∨𝒃∨𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

5G
 Vectors
You need to know the definition of the
scalar product of two vectors in 2 or 3
dimensions, and how it can be used to
calculate the angle between 2 vectors a
b
The scalar product of two vectors a and b
is written as a.b (‘a dot b’) and is defined
by: If two vectors are perpendicular, then the angle
between them is 90°.
𝒂  . 𝒃=|𝒂|∨𝒃∨𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃  As cos90° = 0, this will cause the dot product to
be 0 as well
This formula can be rewritten in order to  Hence, if vectors are perpendicular, the dot
find the angle between 2 vectors:
product is 0
 If the dot product is 0, the vectors are
  𝒂 .𝒃 perpendicular
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃=
|𝒂|∨𝒃∨¿¿

5G
 Vectors
You need to know the definition of the If a = x1i + y1j + z1k and b = x2i + y2j + z2k
scalar product of two vectors in 2 or 3
dimensions, and how it can be used to Then:
calculate the angle between 2 vectors 𝑥 1   𝑥2
 
The scalar product of two vectors a and b is
written as a.b (‘a dot b’) and is defined by:
( ) ( )¿ 𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑦 𝑦 +𝑧 𝑧
𝒂 . 𝒃= 𝑦1 . 𝑦2
𝑧1 𝑧2
  1 2 1 2 1 2

𝒂  . 𝒃=|𝒂|∨𝒃∨𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
This formula can be rewritten in order to
find the angle between 2 vectors:
This is a way to find the dot
  𝒂 .𝒃 product from 2 vectors
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃=
|𝒂|∨𝒃∨¿¿
If we are to use this formula to work out the
angle between 2 vectors, we therefore need
an alternative way to calculate the scalar
product…

5G
 Vectors
You need to know the definition of the Given that a = 8i – 5j – 4k and b = 5i + 4j – k:
scalar product of two vectors in 2 or 3
dimensions, and how it can be used to a) Find a.b
calculate the angle between 2 vectors 𝑥1 𝑥2 Use the dot
 
The scalar product of two vectors a and b
𝒂 . 𝒃=
( )( )
𝑦1 . 𝑦2
𝑧1 𝑧2
product
formula
is written as a.b (‘a dot b’) and is defined 8 5
 

𝒂.
by:

  𝒃=|𝒂|∨𝒃∨𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝒂 . 𝒃=
( )( )
−5 . 4
−4 −1

This formula can be rewritten in order to

𝒂  . 𝒃=( 8 ×5 ) + ( −5 × 4 )+(− 4 ×−1)
find the angle between 2 vectors: 𝒂  . 𝒃=24
  𝒂 .𝒃
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃=
|𝒂|∨𝒃∨¿¿
If a = x1i + y1j + z1k and b = x2i + y2j + z2k
Then:

  𝑥 1   𝑥2

( )( )¿ 𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑦 𝑦 + 𝑧 𝑧
𝒂 . 𝒃= 𝑦1 . 𝑦2
𝑧1 𝑧2
  1 2 1 2 1 2

5G
 Vectors
You need to know the definition of the Given that a = 8i – 5j – 4k and b = 5i + 4j – k:
scalar product of two vectors in 2 or 3
dimensions, and how it can be used to a) Find a.b 𝒂  . 𝒃=24
calculate the angle between 2 vectors b) Calculate the angle between vectors a and b

The scalar product of two vectors a and b 𝒂 .𝒃 Use the angle formula – you will
is written as a.b (‘a dot b’) and is defined  
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃= need to calculate the magnitude
by:
|𝒂|∨𝒃∨¿¿ of each vector as well…

𝒂.
  𝒃=|𝒂|∨𝒃∨𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
  |a   |b
This formula can be rewritten in order to
  |a   |b
find the angle between 2 vectors:
  𝒂 .𝒃
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃=
|𝒂|∨𝒃∨¿¿   𝒂 .𝒃
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃=
|𝒂|∨𝒃∨¿¿ Sub in the
If a = x1i + y1j + z1k and b = x2i + y2j + z2k values
Then:   𝜃= 24
𝑐𝑜𝑠
√ 105 √ 42 Solve, remembering
𝑥 1   𝑥2
  to use inverse Cos
( )( )¿ 𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑦 𝑦 + 𝑧 𝑧
𝒂 . 𝒃= 𝑦1 . 𝑦2
𝑧1 𝑧2
  1 2 1 2 1 2 𝜃=68.8
  °
5G
 Vectors
You need to know the definition of the Given that the vectors a = 2i – 6j + k and b = 5i + 2j + λk
scalar product of two vectors in 2 or 3 are perpendicular, calculate the value of λ.
dimensions, and how it can be used to
𝑥1 𝑥2
calculate the angle between 2 vectors  

The scalar product of two vectors a and b

𝒂 . 𝒃=
( )( )
𝑦1 . 𝑦2
𝑧1 𝑧2
Calculate the dot
is written as a.b (‘a dot b’) and is defined 2 5 product in terms of λ
 
by:
( )( )
𝒂 . 𝒃= − 6 . 2
1 λ
𝒂.
  𝒃=|𝒂|∨𝒃∨𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
This formula can be rewritten in order to
𝒂  . 𝒃=( 2 ×5 ) + ( −6 × 2 ) +(1 × λ)
find the angle between 2 vectors: 𝒂  . 𝒃=−2+λ As the vectors are
  𝒂 .𝒃 perpendicular, the dot product
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃=
|𝒂|∨𝒃∨¿¿
0=−2+λ
  Solve
must be 0
λ=2
 
If a = x1i + y1j + z1k and b = x2i + y2j + z2k
Then:

  𝑥 1   𝑥2 Only this value of λ will cause these

( )( )¿ 𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑦 𝑦 + 𝑧 𝑧
𝒂 . 𝒃= 𝑦1 . 𝑦2
𝑧1 𝑧2
  1 2 1 2 1 2 vectors to be perpendicular…

5G
VECTOR EQUATION OF A LINE
 Vectors
y
You need to be able to write the
equation of a straight line in
vector form (effectively the
equation of a 3D line!)

Let us first consider how this is

x
done in 2 dimensions

So any linear 2D graph needs a

direction, and a point on the line

With just the direction, the line

wouldn’t have a specific path and  𝑦=𝑚𝑥+ 𝑐
could effectively be anywhere

With only a given point, the line m is the gradient of the line c is the y-intercept
would not have a specific direction  This can also be thought of as  This is a given point on
the DIRECTION the line goes the line

5H
 Vectors
You need to be able to write the
equation of a straight line in
vector form (effectively the
equation of a 3D line!)
In 3D, we effectively need the
same bits of information
A vector equation of a straight line passing through the
point A with position vector a (effectively the coordinate),
and parallel to the vector b, is:
𝒓=𝒂+
  𝝀𝒃
where t is a scalar parameter

 We need any point on the line

(ie – a coordinate in the form
(x, y, z))

 We also need to know the

direction the line is travelling (a
vector with terms i, j and k)

5H
 Vectors
You need to be able to write the Find a vector equation of the straight line which passes
equation of a straight line in through a, with position vector 3i – 5j + 4k, and is parallel
vector form (effectively the to the vector 7i – 3k
equation of a 3D line!)
3 7
   
A vector equation of a straight line
passing through the point A with
𝒂=
( )
−5
4
𝒃=
( )0
−3

position vector a (effectively the

coordinate), and parallel to the vector
b, is: This is the position This is the direction
vector we will use vector we will use
𝒓=𝒂+
  𝝀𝒃
where t is a scalar parameter 𝒓=𝒂+
  𝝀𝒃

  −35 +
  𝝀 7
𝒓=¿
  ( ) ( )
4
0
−3
This is the vector
equation of the line

The value t remains unspecified at this point, it can be

used later to calculate points on the vector itself, by
substituting in different values for t
5H
 Vectors
You need to be able to write the   −35 +𝑡
  7

equation of a straight line in

𝒓=¿
  ( ) ( )
4
0
−3
vector form (effectively the
equation of a 3D line!) Some alternative forms

𝒓=3𝒊
  −5 𝒋+4 𝒌 +𝝀 (7 𝒊− 3 𝒌)
A vector equation of a straight line
passing through the point A with (By writing in a different form)
position vector a (effectively the
coordinate), and parallel to the vector
b, is: 𝒓=
  ( 3𝒊+7 𝝀 ) 𝒊+(− 5) 𝒋+(4 − 3 𝝀 )𝒌
(By multiplying out the brackets and then re-
𝒓=𝒂+
  𝝀𝒃 grouping i, j and k terms)
where t is a scalar parameter
  3+7 𝝀
𝒓=
( −5
4 −3 𝝀 )
(By rewriting again in the original column vector form)

5H
 Vectors
You need to be able to write the Find a vector equation of the straight line passing
equation of a straight line in through the points A and B, with coordinates (4, 5, -1) and
vector form (effectively the (6, 3, 2) respectively.
equation of a 3D line!) 4 6
   
Working in 2D – the equation of the line can be
calculated by using either:
𝒂=
( )5
−1
𝒃=
()
3
2
a) The gradient (direction) and a coordinate
(like we just did) Calculating b – a will give you the
 𝒃 − 𝒂 = 6   4
vector AB, ie) the direction
b) Two coordinates (since you can calculate
the gradient between them) ()( )
3 − 5
2 −1
vector that passes through A
and B
3D can also be done either way…
2
 
A vector equation of a straight line passing
through the points A and B, with position
3( )
𝒃 − 𝒂= − 2

vectors a and b respectively, is given by:

𝒓=𝒂+
  𝝀 (𝒃 −𝒂) 𝒓=𝒂+
  𝝀 (𝒃 −𝒂)
where t is a scalar parameter Then use (b – a) along with
  4 2 either of the 2
As you aren’t given the direction vector in
this type, you have to work it out by
calculating the vector AB (b – a)
−1( ) ( )
𝒓= 5 + 𝝀 − 2
3
coordinates/position vectors
you’re given

5H
 Vectors
You need to be able to write the   The straight line l has a vector equation:
equation of a straight line in r = (3i + 2j – 5k) + (i – 6j – 2k)
vector form (effectively the
Given that the point (a, b, 0) lies on l, calculate the values
equation of a 3D line!) of a and b
The top numbers give the x
A vector equation of a straight line passing coordinate, the middles
  3 1 3+
  𝝀=𝑎
through the points A and B, with position
vectors a and b respectively, is given by:

𝒓=𝒂+
  𝝀 (𝒃 −𝒂) −5 ( ) ( )
𝑟= 2 + 𝝀 − 6
−2
2  −6 𝝀=𝑏
−5
  −2 𝝀=0
give the y, and the bottom
gives the z, all for an
unknown value of t (at this
point)
where t is a scalar parameter

We can use the bottom equation to find the value of t

As you aren’t given the direction vector in
this type, you have to work it out by
calculating the vector AB (b – a) −5
  −2 𝝀=0
𝝀=−2.5
 

3+𝑡=𝑎
  2  −6 𝝀=𝑏
3+(−
  2.5)=𝑎 2  −6(− 2.5)=𝑏
0.5=𝑎
  17=𝑏
 

The coordinate itself is (0.5, 17, 0)

5H
 Vector Equation of a Line
There are three ways of expressing the relationship
between the coordinates of any point P and a vector
parallel to the line
1) The vector equation of the line
2) The parametric equations of the line
3) The Cartesian equations of the line.
 Vector Equation of a Line
Generally if a line passes through A(d, e, f) and is parallel to ai +bj+ck, its equation
may be written as

Note that the point (d, e, f) is only one of an infinite set of fixed points on the line.
Hence equations representing a particular line are not unique.
EXAMPLE
 Pairs of Lines

The location of two lines in space may be such

that
• The lines are parallel
• The line lines are not parallel and intersect
• The lines are not parallel and do not intersect.
Such lines are called skew
 Parallel Lines – Direction Ratios
• The Vector OP has point (a, b, c) then the
direction of OP relative to the axes is
determined by the coordinates of P, the ratios
a: b: c is called the direction ratio of the vector
OP.
• Parallel vectors have equal direction ratios
 Vectors
You need to be able to write the
equation of a straight line in
vector form (effectively the
The straight line l has vector equation:
r = (2i + 5j – 3k) + t(6i – 2j + 4k)
Determine if parallel to line with equation:
r = (8i + 3j + k) + t(3i – j + 2k)

equation of a 3D line!)   2 6
  8 3

A vector equation of a straight line passing

𝑟=
( ) ( )
5
−3
+𝑡 −2
4 1 () ( )
𝑟= 3 +𝑡 − 1
2
through the points A and B, with position
vectors a and b respectively, is given by: If you look at the direction vectors, one is a multiple
of the other
𝒓=𝒂+𝑡
  (𝒃 −𝒂)  This means they are parallel
where t is a scalar parameter

1) Rewrite the original straight line

equation with a different direction vector

2) Then try to find a value for t that will

give you the given coordinate as an answer
 This shows that the given coordinate is
on the line and hence, can be used in the
vector equation

5H
 Non – parallel lines
• If not parallel then they either intersect or are
skewed.
 Link to Autograph
Vectors
You need to be able to determine whether
two given straight lines intersect

Up until now we have used t as the scalar

parameter
 If we have more than one vector equation,
then s is usually used to the other
Eg)
𝒓=
  ( 5𝒊+2 𝒋 −3 𝒌 )+𝑡 (2 𝒊− 3 𝒋+𝒌 )
𝒓=
  ( 4 𝒊 −5 𝒋+2 𝒌 ) +𝑠(𝒊 − 𝒋+ 6 𝒌 )

Sometimes the Greek letters λ and μ are used

as well.

𝒓=
  ( 2𝒊 − 𝒋+ 2𝒌 )+ λ(𝟒 𝒊− 2 𝒋− 2 𝒌)
𝒓=
  ( 3𝒊 −5 𝒋+4 𝒌 ) +𝜇(3 𝒊 −3 𝒋+2 𝒌 )

It is important to note that in 3 dimensions, 2

straight lines may pass each other without
intersecting!
5I
 Vectors
  3 23+2
  𝑡
You need to be able to determine
whether two given straight lines intersect
( ) ( ) −2+3
−2 3
8  −𝑡
𝑟= 8 +𝑡 − 1
  𝑡 Find the x, y and z
coordinates in terms
  7 7+2
  2 𝑠 of t and s
It is important to note that in 3 dimensions,
2 straight lines may pass each other without
( ) ( ) 3+4
3
4  +𝑠
𝑟= 4 + 𝑠 1
  4 𝑠
intersecting! If there is a point of intersection, then at this point the
equations for the x, y and z coordinates in terms of t and s will
1a) Show that the lines with vector equations: be equal…
 Solve 2 of the equations simultaneously, and then check if the
answers also satisfy the third
r = (3i + 8j – 2k) + t(2i – j + 3k)
and r = (7i + 4j + 3k) + s(2i + j + 4k) Solve
3+2
  𝑡=7+2 𝑠 2  𝑡 −2 𝑠=4 simultaneously
intersect. 8  −𝑡=4+ 𝑠 −𝑡
  − 𝑠=− 4 by making
either the t
rearrange
𝑠=1
  𝑡  =3 or s terms
‘equal’

−2+3
  𝑡=3+4 𝑠 Sub s and t into the 3rd pair –
if it ‘works’ then the lines
−2+3(3)=3+4
  (1) intersect. If not, then they
don’t…
7=7
 

So the lines DO intersect

5I
 Vectors
3 2
 
You need to be able to determine
whether two given straight lines intersect
( ) ( )
𝑟= 8 +𝑡 − 1
−2 3
Sub t = 3 into the first
equation and calculate
3 2 the position vector
 
It is important to note that in 3 dimensions,
2 straight lines may pass each other without
( ) ( )
𝑟= 8
−2
+3 −1
3
intersecting! 9
 
1a) Show that the lines with vector equations:
() 𝑟= 5
7

r = (3i + 8j – 2k) + t(2i – j + 3k)

and r = (7i + 4j + 3k) + s(2i + j + 4k) 7 2
 
intersect. 3 () ()
𝑟= 4 + 𝑠 1
4
Sub s = 1 into the
second equation and
calculate the position
7 2
We have just calculated that the above lines  
intersect for the values of t = 3 and s = 1
3 () ()
𝑟= 4 +1 1
4
vector

b) Calculate the position vector of the point of 9

 
intersection 𝑟= 5
7 ()
You only need to choose one of the equations for the
substitution, as you can see, it works for both!
5I
Link to Autograph

Vectors
You need to be able to calculate the angle
between any 2 straight lines

The acute angle θ between two straight lines

is given by:

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃=¿
 

Where a and b are the direction vectors of

the two lines.

 The lines do not have to be intersecting –

the angle is the angle between them if
one was moved along so they do intersect

Eg) The lines to the right do not intersect,

but the angle calculated is the angle between
them if one was translated such that they do
intersect

5J
 Vectors
You need to be able to calculate the Find the acute angle between the lines with vector equations:
angle between any 2 straight lines r = (2i + j + k) + t(3i – 8j – k)
and r = (7i + 4j + k) + s(2i + 2j + 3k)
The acute angle θ between two straight
To do this, you only need the direction vectors
lines is given by:
3 2
   
 
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃=¿ ( ) ()
𝒂= − 8
−1
𝒃= 2
3
3 2
  Calculate the dot
Where a and b are the direction
vectors of the two lines.
( )( )
𝒂 . 𝒃= −8 . 2
−1 3 product, a.b

𝒂  . 𝒃=( 3 ×2 ) + ( −8 × 2 )+(−1 ×3)

 The lines do not have to be 𝒂  . 𝒃=−13
intersecting – the angle is the angle
between them if one was moved
along so they do intersect
¿  𝒂∨¿ √ 32 +(− 8)2 +(− 1)2
¿𝒂∨¿
  √ 74 Calculate the
magnitude of a and b
¿  𝒃∨¿ √ 22+22+32
¿𝒃∨¿
  √ 17
5J
 Vectors
You need to be able to calculate the
angle between any 2 straight lines 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃=¿
 
Sub in the values we
have just calculated
The acute angle θ between two straight −13
lines is given by:
  𝜃=
𝑐𝑜𝑠
| √ 74 √17 | Work out the sum

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃=¿
  𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃=
  |−0.3665 …| Since the answer is negative, we
need to ‘make it positive’ by
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃=0.3665
  multiplying by -1

Where a and b are the direction

vectors of the two lines. 𝜃=68.5
  °

 The lines do not have to be

intersecting – the angle is the angle
between them if one was moved
along so they do intersect

𝒂  . 𝒃=−13
¿𝒂∨¿
  √ 74
¿𝒃∨¿
  √ 17
5J
VECTOR EQUATION OF A PLANE
 Vector Equation of plane
Since AP is perpendicular
to the normal then
that is , . Thus
the vector equation of a
A a plane is of the form.

a
 Question
Find an equation of the plane through the point
( 1, 2, 3 ) and with the normal vector 
n = 15i + 9j - 12k.

SOLUTION

r.n=a.n
(x)(15)+(y)(9)+(z)(-12) = (1)(15)+(2)(9)+(3)(-12)
15x+9y-12z = -3
5x+3y-4z=-1
 Question
• Determine the normal vector of the following
equation of a plane 2x + 3y- 6z + 3=0

The general equation of a plane is in the form ax+by+cz+d=0.

From this we can easily pull the normal to be n⃗ =(
a,b,c)=(2,3,−6).