EXPERIMENTAL

TECHNIQUES
Reference
◦ Textbook: Page 395 - 398
Learning outcomes
◦ Describe the differences between elements, mixtures and compounds, and between metals and non-metals
◦ Define the terms solvent, solute, solution and concentration
◦ Name and suggest appropriate apparatus for the measurement of time, temperature, mass and volume, including burettes, pipettes and
measuring cylinders
◦ Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of paper chromatography
◦ Interpret simple chromatograms
◦ Interpret simple chromatograms, including the use of Rf values
◦ Understand the importance of purity in substances in everyday life, e.g. in the manufacture of compounds to use in drugs and food additives
◦ Recognise that mixtures melt and boil over a range of temperatures
◦ Identify substances and assess their purity from melting point and boiling point information
◦ Describe and explain methods of separation and purification by the use of a suitable solvent, filtration, crystallisation, distillation, fractional
distillation and paper chromotography
◦ Suggest suitable separation and purification techniques, given information about the substances involved
Experimental design and investigation
Scientific method
◦ It is how evidence based scientific studies can be carried out.

◦ It usually involved 3 stages of planning, experimenting and

analysing.

◦ More specific methods within each stages could vary between

different investigations.
Scientific report
◦ A scientific report is written to show clearly how the scientific
methods is carried out in an investigation.

◦ A generic report will include these: Aim, Hypothesis, materials,

procedures, results/ observations, conclusion and discussion

.
Aim
◦ The purpose of the experiment.
◦ What are you trying to find out?
Hypothesis
◦ An educated guess to your question in the aim.

◦ It should not be a random guess but it should be based on prior

research.
Materials/ Procedures
◦ What is needed in the experiment?
◦ How would you carry out the experiment to find the answer to question in
“aim” accurately and fairly?

◦ Variables: When we plan our investigation, we must decide which variable we

are going to vary (the independent variable) and which one will change as a
result (the dependent variable). Also, controlled variables need to be
considered.
Results/ observations
◦ Results: quantitative data in a table and a graph.
◦ Observations: description of qualitative data.
Recording results/ Presentation of data
◦ Your conclusion/ answer to the investigation is based on the results
(evidence).

◦ The results needed to be presented in a clear and in an unbiased

manner.
Presentation of Data
Conclusion
◦ The answer to the question based on the results/observations
Discussion
◦ How would you improve the experiment to make it more
accurate
◦ Discuss implications of your findings.
◦ What else could be studied?
Taking Measurements
◦ Time : Stopwatch 
◦ Mass : Electronic Balance
◦ Temperature : Thermometer
◦ Volume of liquid: Measuring cylinder, Pipette and Burette
Precision (reliablity) vs Accuracy of
results
Precision Accuracy

◦ How close your results ◦ How close your results

are to each other. are to the true value.
Accuracy
◦ Random errors in experimental measurements are caused by unknown and
unpredictable changes in the experiment. These changes may occur in the
measuring instruments or in the environmental conditions.

◦ Systematic errors in experimental observations usually come from the

measuring instruments. They may occur because:
1. there is something wrong with the instrument or its data handling system, or
2. because the instrument is wrongly used by the experimenter.
Precision vs accuracy
◦ https://www.matrix.edu.au/the-beginners-guide-to-physics-practical-skills/physics-practical-skills-part-2-
validity-reliability-accuracy-experiments/
Significant Figures
◦ each of the digits of a number that are used to express it to the
required degree of accuracy, starting from the first non-zero digit.

◦ Example 1: 123 => 3 sig fig

◦ Example 2: 0.01 => 1 sig fig
◦ Example 3: 103.05 => 5 sig fig
Questions: Identify the number of
significant figures
1. 354 seconds
2. 223.65 cm3
3. 0.0302 m
4. 0.1000 cm
5. 0252.3 g
Errors!
◦Random
  errors caused by the limitation of the instruments can be calculated. This
is a numerical analysis of accuracy of results.

Absolute error: this value is given on the glassware or it is half of the smallest
unit.
Example: Measuring cylinder: ± 0.5 cm3
                Burette: ± 0.05 cm3

Percentage error: =X 100 %

Calculating errors of processed data
1. If the measurements are added or subtracted from each other, the
absolute errors are added.

2. If the measurements are multiplied or divided, the percentage

errors are added.
Measurement and errors Worksheet
Practical 1: Significant Figures and
Measurements
Matter
◦ Matter is everything. It refers to things with mass which takes up
space. (an object)
Atom
◦ Scientists discovered that all matter is made up of small
particles(particles = discrete objects) called atoms.

◦ There are many different kinds of atoms which make up different kinds
of matter.

How many types of elements are there?

Classification of matter
◦ Scientists decided to classify things(matter) so that we can study
about them more easily.

◦ What does it mean to classify?

◦ It is to sort things out into groups with a common characteristic.

Classification of Matter
1.Elements vs Compounds
2.Pure substance vs mixture
 
3.Metals vs non-metals
Element vs Compound
◦ A substance can be an element or a compound.

◦ Element: A substance made up of only one type of atom.

◦ Compound: A substance made up of two or more different types of

atoms chemically bonded together.
Diagrams
Pure substance vs Mixture
◦ Chemical substances can be found as a pure substance or a mixture.

◦ Pure substance: only one type of substance

◦ Mixture: 2 ore more types of substance found together. They are not chemically
bonded.

Homogeneous mixture- uniform mixture ( Can’t distinguish the substances within the
mixture easily)
Heterogeneous mixture- non-uniform mixture (substances are easily distinguishable)
Diagrams
Homogeneous mixture: Solutes, Solvent
and Solution
◦ Solution is a liquid which contains dissolved solids.

◦ Solute is the solid dissolved in the solution.

◦ Solvent is the liquid which dissolves the solute.
◦ Concentration: measure of how much the solute is dissolved in a unit of
volume of the solvent.

◦ Example: Sea water, what is the solute and what is the solvent?
Metals vs Non-metals
◦ The elements can be classified as a metallic or non-metallic elements.

◦ Most elements are metallic. They are found on the left side of the
periodic table.

◦ The non-metallic elements are found on the right side of the periodic
table.
Worksheet 10 minutes
◦ Elements, Compounds and Mixtures (Topic 1 Questions A)
Determination of purity
◦ Purity of drugs and food matter is essential for the safety of the public.

◦ Impurity or undesired products can cause unforeseen side effects.

Determination of purity
◦ Melting and Boiling point:
1. A pure substance has a sharp m.p and b.p however a mixture has a range of
m.p and b.p.

2. Melting point decreases and Boiling point increases

◦ Use Chromatography: a pure substance will show one sharp point on the
chromatogram, a mixture will show more than one point.
Reference
◦ Reference: Textbook pg 193-197
Principles of separation
◦ A mixture of different substances can be separated using the
differences in the physical properties.

◦ Reference: Textbook pg 193-197

1. Filtration
◦ Separating insoluble solid from liquid/solution
◦ Using the difference in size of the particles
◦ Examples: Seawater and sand
2. Decanting
◦ Separating insoluble solid from liquid/solution or two immiscible
liquids.
◦ Using the difference in density
◦ Example: 2 minute Noodles or oil and water
3. Evaporation
◦ Separating dissolved solid from solution.
◦ Using difference in boiling point.( Volatility)
◦ Example: Salt from sea water.
Special method: Crystallization
◦ Evaporation method is sometimes too crude to obtain good solid products.
◦ Crystallization is similar process to evaporation which is more refined way
of producing pure solid products.

1. Heats the solution until saturation (should be able to see some solid
products forming around the evaporating dish)
2. Leave the product to cool, as the solution cools. When the solution cools,
less solid can dissolve in the solution and precipitates out.
4. Distillation
◦ Separating two miscible liquids or the solvent from a solution.
◦ Difference in volatility (boiling point)
◦ Example: Ethanol from water or the water from sea water.
◦ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V5ep0-ojPGw

◦ NOTE: High volatility= low boiling point and vice versa

4. Distillation
◦ Separating two miscible liquids or the solvent
from a solution.
◦ Difference in volatility (b.p)
◦ Example: Ethanol from water or the water from
sea water.
◦ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V5ep0-ojPG
w
5. Fractional distillation
◦ Separate two substances with similar Volatility b.p/ mp
◦ Difference in volatility.
◦ Example: Ethanol from water

◦ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vUybtRlaLLw
◦ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PYMWUz7TC3A
5. Fractional
distillation
◦ Separate two substances with similar
Volatility b.p/ mp
◦ Difference in volatility.
◦ Example: Ethanol from water

◦ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vUybtR
laLLw
◦ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PYMW
Uz7TC3A
6. Sublimation
◦ Separating two solids.
◦ Difference in volatility
◦ Example: Iodine and salt
7. Magnetism
◦ Separating two solids
◦ Magnetism
◦ Example: Iron filling from black sand
8. Chromatography
◦ Separate two liquids/solutions/solutes
◦ Difference in solubility
◦ Example: dyes in ink
◦ For determining purity rather than collecting a pure substance from
the mixture.
Chromatography: Calculating Rf value
◦ Calculating Rf Values 
◦ The degree of retention of a component is called the retardation factor (R ƒ). The Rf is defined as the ratio
of the distance travled by the center of a spot to the distance traveled by the solven front. It is specific for
an analyte in a chromatorgraphy therefore it can be used to compare an analyte to a known substance.

◦ Rƒ = DA ÷ DS
◦ (where DA = distance migrated by spot and DS = distance migrated by solvent)