Chapter 1 - Measurement and Experimental Techniques

1.1 Measuring Physical Quantities

Measurements are expressed in two parts - the numerical value and the unit.
Systeme International d’Unites or S.I. units are the most commonly used system of units in
science.

Mass
● The S.I. unit for mass is the kilogram (kg).
● The mass of a substance is measured with a beam balance or an electronic balance (in
g).
● When in need to measure small masses, an electronic balance with an accuracy of up to
0.01 g is used.
Time
● The SI unit for measuring time is second (s).
● In a laboratory, a stopwatch or a stopclock is used to measure time.

Temperature
● The SI unit for measuring temperature is kelvin (K).
● A mercury thermometer or a datalogger is used to measure temperature.
● A datalogger (connected to a temp sensor) is useful to record changing temperatures.
● Mercury/alcohol thermometer accuracy: abt 0.1 °C
Volume
● The SI unit for volume is m³.
● A variety of apparatus is used to measure volume. The apparatus chosen depends on
the volume and accuracy needed.
Liquids
● Beaker
- Used to estimate the volume of a liquid.
- Usually in cm³.
● Measuring Cylinder
- More accurate than a beaker.
- Measures up to the nearest cm³.
● Burette
- Accurately measures out the volume of a liquid to the nearest 0.05 cm³. (usually
for acids)
- Scale marked in 0.1 cm³ divisions.
- Used to deliver diff volumes of liquid (ex. 38.9 cm³).
- Has tip, stop cock, and barrel, 0 being at top. Thus we do not read how much
liquid is in it but rather how much was dispensed from it.
● Pipette
- Accurately measures out fixed volumes of liquids (ex. 25.0 cm³).
Gases
A gas syringe is used to measure the volume of a gas. The gas syringe measures a maximum
volume of 100 cm³.

1.2 Selecting suitable apparatus

Collecting and measuring volumes of gases.
How we collect a gas depends on the physical properties of the gas, namely:
Solubility - whether a gas is soluble in water
Density - how dense the gas is compared to air
Collecting gases
1. Displacement of water - used to collect insoluble gases. (hydrogen, oxygen, carbon
dioxide)

2. Downward delivery - used to collect gases that are denser than air and soluble in water.
(chlorine, hydrogen chloride, sulphur dioxide)

3. Upward delivery - used to collect gases that are less dense than air and soluble in
water. (ammonia)
Upward & downward delivery is displacement of air. Insoluble can also be collected by
displacement of air.

Drying a Gas
To collect a dry sample of gas, we pass it through a drying agent.
1. Concentrated sulphuric acid - except ammonia

2. Quicklime (calcium oxide) - only ammonia (quicklime is a solid)

3. Fused calcium chloride - except ammonia

Chapter 2 - Separation Techniques/Methods of Purification

Mixtures - contain more than one substance, mixed together but not chemically combined.
Pure substance - made up of only one kind of substance (not mixed with any other)

Solutions
Solute (soluble substance) + solvent (liquid) = solution
Saturated solution - if solutes can no longer dissolve at a specific temperature, solute would sink
unless heated further (concentrated)
Solvents
Water is the most common solvent, a solution with water as its solvent is called an aqueous
solution (aq)

Criteria for purity

Purity can be determined by mp & bp or chromatography
● Mp
- if it is a pure solid it will have a sharp melting point.
- If an impurity is present then melting point falls and melting takes place over a
range of temperatures.
● Bp
- if it is a pure liquid it will have a sharp boiling point.
- If the substance is impure then boiling point rises and the mixture will boil over a
temperature range.
Freezing point is same as melting point (falls if impure)
Condensation point is same as boiling point (rises if impure)

Separation techniques
Filtration
● is the process of separating suspended solid matter from a liquid, by causing the latter to
pass through the pores of some substance, called a filter. (using filter paper and funnel)
● The liquid which has passed through the filter is called the filtrate.
● The trapped solid is called residue.
● Separate solid from liquid
● Used for suspensions (insoluble solid in liquid)
Crystallization

●
● Separate solute from solution
Evaporation
● Is the technique used to separate dissolved solids from a solid-liquid mixture.

●
● Separate solute from solution
Simple Distillation
● is a process that can be used to separate a pure liquid from a solution. Water can be
obtained from salt water using this method.
● Separate solvent from solution
 ●
Fractional Distillation
● is a process that can be used to separate a pure liquid from a mixture of liquids. It works
when the liquids have different boiling points. Fractional Distillation is commonly used to
separate ethanol - the alcohol in alcoholic drinks - from water.
● Common uses: separating oils (crude oil)
● Separate liquid from each other

●
● Has fractionating column (beads/rods) and thermometer
Chromatography
● is a physical method of separation that distributes components to separate between two
phases: one stationary (stationary phase), the other (the mobile phase) moving in a
definite direction.
● is used as a qualitative analytical technique for identifying and separating coloured
mixtures like pigments. Also used to determine if a substance is pure/not.
 ● The mobile phase is the solvent that moves through the paper, carrying different
substances with it. The stationary phase (the chromatography paper without solvent) is
contained on the paper and does not move through it.
● If B has 2 spots in the chromatogram, you can only say a substance has B if it has both
spots too.
● Result is called a chromatogram

●
● A pigment that is the most soluble will travel the greatest distance and a pigment that is
less soluble will move a shorter distance.
● Retention factors or Rf values are the ratio of the distance travelled by the solute (for
example P, Q or R) to the distance travelled by the solvent.

Chapter 3 - The Particulate Nature of Matter

Brownian Motion
● The random movement of small visible particles in a suspension caused by the unequal
random bombardment of molecules of liquid or gas on the visible particles.
● Provides evidence for the kinetic particle model.
● Particles moving in a straight line get affected by colliding with other particles and start
zig zag.
● Ex. zigzag movement of pollen grains in still water

Diffusion
● The spreading movement of one substance into another due to the random motion of the
particles.
 ● Diffusion in gases is faster than diffusion in liquids bcs gas particles move faster.
● Does not happen in solids bcs particles are in a fixed position.
● Overall movement of particles is from more concentrated -> less concentrated
● When writing about diffusion refer to RANDOM MOVEMENT of particles. Particles do
not always travel from high to low.

atom - smallest particles

molecules - 2+ atoms joined together
ions - charged atoms/group of atoms

Relative molecular mass

● Higher RMM, heavier, slower than low RMM

Liquids - particles arranged randomly and slide over each other randomly and slowly
Gases - arranged randomly, rapid movement

Kinetic Particle Theory

● Particles in all states behave as hard spheres which are constantly moving from place to
place (l & g)/vibrating.
● Gas particles are constantly colliding and changing directions. They move randomly.
● Ex. Gases can be compressed easily: far apart particles. Increasing pressure, decreases
distance, decreases volume.
● Ex. Liquids and solids can’t be compressed easily: touching/close particles. Increasing
pressure has little effect since particles are ‘hard’.
● Ex. Gas heated, moves faster and hits walls with greater force, increasing pressure.
● Ex. Gas heated at constant press, gain energy, hit wall of syringe more, push syringe our
(inc volume)

Heating & Cooling Curves

 ● Show temp change when sub is heated/cooled at steady rate.
● S -> L energy used to reduce attractive forces.
● D -> E energy used to overcome attractive forces.
● Temperature increase - gain in internal KE
● Change state - gain in internal PE

Chapter 4 - Atomic Structure and The Periodic Table

Atoms are the smallest particles of matter that we cannot break down further by chemical
means.

Element
● Contains only 1 kind of atom.
● 2 groups - atoms (smallest particle of an element and has same chemical properties of
the element) or molecules (2 or more atoms of same element bonded)
Compound
● Made of atoms of diff elements bonded together.
● Can be broken down into simpler subs.
Mixtures
● Diff sub, not bonded
● Keep their original/chemical properties, (most phys too).

The Periodic Table

● Vertical columns are called groups.
● Horizontal rows are called periods.
● Most elements are metals.
● Po, At debatable metalloids
Group
Group number is the same as the number of outer shell electrons. The number of valence
electrons/electrons in total dictates how an element reacts.The fewer electrons to lose/gain, the
less energy is needed (less energy, more reactive). Density generally increases GOING DOWN
all groups.
~ I, 1, Alkali Metals
● Mono-atomic metals
● 1 electron in outer shell, lose 1 electron, 1+ ions
● Shiny, silver
● Light in weight
● Low density
● Soft (Li,Na,K can be cut w knife)
● Highly reactive (react quickly when exposed to air), have to be stored away from air and
water
● React violently w water to form strong alkaline solutions of metal hydroxides
● React quickly to form oxides
● React to form chlorides
 ● Produce ionic compounds, all white solids
● Dissolve in water to give colourless solutions.
● GOING DOWN, density increase, mp decrease, reactivity increase(easier lose electron)
● Francium (bottom) is radioactive
~ VII, 7, Halogens
● Non metals
● Produce many salts when react w metal
● Diatomic (molecules)
● 7 valence electrons, gain electrons. 1- ions
● Poor conductors (thermal and electricity)
● When solid, their crystals are brittle.
● Highly reactive
● GOING DOWN, density increases (lowest solid toppest gas), mp & bp increases, gets
darker in colour, reactivity decreases (bottom harder to gain electro, hot iron wool))
● Fluorine is dangerously reactive, all elements have extremely poisonous vapours, liquid
bromine is very corrosive. Astatine is radioactive.
● Fluorine and chlorine are gases
● Bromine is a liquid (turns to vapour easily)
● Iodine is a solid
Reactions
-Metals
Halogen atom accepts electron to form halide ions/halides
Forms ionic compound
-Non metals
Halogen atom shares electrons, form molecules with covalent bond
-Displacement Reaction
A more reactive halogen will displace a less reactive halogen from a solution of its salt (halide
solution).

~ VIII, 8, Noble Gases

● Full outer shell of electrons
● Stable
● Unreactive/inert
~ Transition Metals usually…
● Found in middle of table
● Have high mp/bp
● Dense, heavy
● Good conductors
 ● Strong
● Solids at room temp, except Mercury
● Malleable (can be bent/hammered into shapes)
● Ductile (can be stretched/pulled out into wires)
● Lots of uses (catalysts), many transition elements and their compounds are used as this.
● Compounds of transition elements (most form ion) have diff charges.
● Much less reactive than alkali metals.
● Do not show a clear trend in reactivity, but next to each other similar.
● Most form coloured compounds.
● Most can form more than 1 compound (w other elements)
● Roman numerals tell how many electrons a metal atom has lost to form the compound.
Called oxidation number (transition have variable of this num)
Period
Number shows how many electron shells are occupied (Period 1 is Hydrogen Helium)

Main trend across a period is the change from metal to non-metal.

Atomic structure
● Atoms have a small central nucleus, most volume of the atom is occupied by the
electrons.
● Mass given in atomic mass units.

Atoms - same number of electrons as protons

Ions - diff number of electrons and protons
Isotopes - 2/more atoms of an element with same proton, diff neutron
● Isotopes have similar chem properties.

Nucleon - neutron/proton
Electronic configuration
● First shell - lowest energy level, further shell from nucleus, higher energy level
● 2,8,8 (third shell can hold only 8 electrons when it is outer shell, the next 2 electrons go
to 4th shell, but after that third shell can take 10 more = 18)

Chapter 5 - Chemical Bonding

Chemical Change
● New and different properties
● One/more subs changed to new sub (1/more)
 ● Energy is taken in/given out during reaction
● Difficult to reverse
● Change in colour, odour, production of heat, fixing/bubbles/foam, sound, light

Physical Change
● Change that affects 1/more physical properties of a substance

Bonds
Atoms bond to obtain full valence electrons (lose, gain, share)
Cation - positive charged, metals
● Metal ions have same name as element
● Some transition have roman numerals
Anion - negative charged, non metals
● Anions same name as element but ending changed to ide (ex. chloride)

Ionic Bond
● Ionic bonding results from the electrostatic attraction between ions of opposite charge
● Aka metal and non metal
Lattice Structure - of ionic compounds
● When for ex. Sodium reacts with chlorine trillions of sodium and chloride ions form
● They bond to form sodium chloride, a lattice of alternating positive and negative ions,
held together by strong ionic bonds.
● Ionic subs form giant ionic lattices (crystalline structures, solid), lattice net charge = 0
● When these break, edges are well defined.
● Brittle, move a layer of ions, ions of same charge end up next to each other and the
laters repel so the crystal breaks up.
● Compounds have…
-high mp and bp (every ion is attracted to every other, held by strong electrostatic, lots of energy
needed to separate.
-can conduct electricity when melted/dissolved in water (liquid), crystal structure breaks down
and ions become free to move and carry charge
-Ionic compounds are usually soluble in water (water is polar, hydrogen slightly positive, oxygen
slightly negative, water has stabilising effect to surround each ion)

Covalent Bond
● Non metal atoms both need to gain electrons, so they combine together by sharing
electrons.
● The shared pair of electrons holds the 2 atoms together. It's called a covalent bond.
● The group of atoms bonded/held together this way is called a molecule (have formula).
● Only share valence electrons.
● Single bond, double bond triple bond. 1 bond = 1 shared pair of electrons.
Covalent/molecular Compounds
● Atoms of diff elements share electrons
● Most non metal elements and their compounds exist as molecules.
 ● Molecular covalent solids’ particles/molecules are not charged, and the forces between
them are weak (strong covalent bond to form molecule but weak intermolecular forces in
between)
● Molecular is the normal ones, there are also macromolecules.
● Compounds have…
-(Molecular) low mp and bp.
-Tend to be insoluble in water.
-Do not conduct electricity.
Giant Covalent Structures
Giant molecular/macromolecular structures contain many hundreds of thousands of atoms
joined by strong covalent bonds.
Macromolecules have high mp and bp (unlike molecular solids)
-Diamond
● A carbon atom (centre) forms covalent bonds to four other carbon atoms.
● It is tetrahedral
● Billions of carbon atoms bond together in a giant covalent structure.
● Very hard, each atom held in place by four strong covalent bonds. (not really any
intermolecular/negligible)
● High mp, bp
● Cannot conduct electricity because no ions/free electrons to carry charge
● Fixed bonds
-Silicon (IV) Oxide
● Structure similar to diamond
● Each silicon atom bonds covalently to four oxygen atoms and each oxygen atom bonds
covalently to two silicon atoms.
● SiO2, occur naturally as quartz (main mineral in sand)
● Hard solid at room temp
-Graphite
● Each carbon atom forms covalent bonds to three others. This gives rings of six atoms.
● The rings form flay sheets that lie on top of each other held together by weak forces.
● It is soft and slippery, sheet cans slide over each other easily.
● Good conductor of electricity. Each carbon atom has 4 outer electrons, but forms only 3
bonds, 4th electron is free to move through the graphite, carrying charge.

Diamond and graphite- are made only of carbon atoms, allotropes of carbon (2 forms of same
element)
Metallic Bonding
● Metals consist of giant structures
● Metal atoms need to get rid of electrons to get to the nearest noble gas electronic
configuration
● The electrons released hold the particles together.
● The metallic bond is the attraction between metal ions & free electrons. The strong
forces of attraction are called metallic bonds.
● Electrons that move freely in the metal lattice are not tied to any one ion, delocalised.
● A crystal is a solid whose atoms are arranged in a "highly ordered" repeating pattern.
Like metals.
● Copper crystals are called grains, a lump of copper has millions of joined grains.
Metals…
● High mp, bp, due to strong attraction
● Conduct electricity, when metal is connected in a circuit, electrons move toward the
positive terminal while at the same time electrons are fed into the other end of the metal
from negative terminal.
● Conduct heat, electrons take in heat energy which makes them move fast and quickly
transfer heat through metal structure.
● Malleable, ductile, metallic bonds are not rigid but strong. If force is applied, rows of ions
can slide over one another. They reposition themselves and the strong bond reform.
Alloys
● Mixtures of metal metal/ metal non metal
● Usually stronger than metals.
● Diff steel (iron+carbon+etc), brass, bronze, solder, amalgam
Common Polyatomic Ions