The apparatus used depends on:

 The volume being measured

 How accurate the measurement needs to be.

The following apparatus are used to measure the volume of a liquid

 Beaker
 Conical flask
 Measuring cylinder
 Burette
 Bulb pipette

A measuring cylinder is more accurate than a beaker.it measures variable volumes approximately. It
is accurate to the nearest cm3.

The burette and bulb pipette are the most accurate.

The burette measures variable volumes accurate. The level of accuracy is 0.1cm 3.

The bulb pipette measures fixed precise volumes, eg exactly 25cm 3 or 50cm3.

The volume of a gas is measured with a gas syringe.

Temperature

It is measured with a thermometer.

There are two types of thermometers, a mercury thermometer and an alcohol thermometer.
The S.I unit for temperature is kelvins, K.

Other units include degree Celsius, 0C.

Time

Time is measured with a clock or digital stopwatch.

The S.I unit for time is seconds.

Other units include minutes, hours

Mass

Mass is measured with a balance.

Various types of balances exist, eg triple beam balance, electronic balance,.

The S.I unit for mass s kilograms, Kg.

Other units include grammes (g), milligrammes (mg), tonnes (t)..

Separation techniques

Mixture – two or more substances physically combined.

Solute – substance that is dissolved.

Solvent – liquid in which the substance is dissolved.

Solution- a mixture made by dissolving a solute in a solvent.

Soluble solid – a solid that dissolves eg. Soil cannot dissolve in water

Insoluble solid – a solid that does not dissolve eg sugar dissolves in water

Miscible liquids – liquids that can mix together eg water and ethanol

Immiscible liquids – liquids that do not mix eg oil and water.

Filtration

Used to separate insoluble solid from liquid.

Distillation

Simple Distillation – separation of pure liquid from a solution. Used when we want to obtain the
liquid from the solution.

Process of Distillation:
Solution is heated, and steam (pure vapour) is produced. The steam is cooled in a condenser to form
pure liquid called the distillate. Solute remains in the flask.

Water can be obtained from salt water using this method. The solution is heated in the flask
until it boils. The steam rises into the Liebig condenser, where it condenses back into water. The
salt is left behind in the flask. This sort of technique is used on a much larger scale to obtain
pure water for drinking. This process is carried out in a desalination plant.

Fractional Distillation
Fractional Distillation – separates mixture of miscible (soluble) liquids with differing boiling points.

Use of fractionationg column separates them.

Glass beads in the fractionating column provides a large surface area for hot vapours to cool and
condense repeatedly.

Process of Fractional Distillation: E.g. ethanol and water

Mixture of ethanol (b.p 75oC) and water (100oC) is placed in a flask and heated. When the mixture is
heated the vapour produced is mainly ethanol with some steam. Because water has higher boiling
point than alcohol it condenses out from the mixture with ethanol in the fractionating column. The
water condenses and drips back into the flask while the ethanol vapour moves up the column into
the condenser where it condenses into liquid ethanol and is collected in the receiving flask as the
distillate. Temperature will stay constant until all ethanol is distilled. When all the ethanol has
distilled over the temperature begin to rise steadily to 100 oC showing that the steam is entering the
condenser. At this point the receiver can be changed and the condensing water can now be
collected.

paper chromatography

used to separate two or more dissolved solids in

solution.

It makes use of two phases of substances, a moving phase (mobile phase) and non moving phase
(stationery phase).

The stationery phase is the chromatography paper.

The mobile phase is the mixture that must be separated dissolved in a solvent.

A drop of the concentrated solution to be separated is placed on a pencil line (baseline) near the
bottom edge of a strip of chromatography paper as shown below. The paper is then dipped in
 the solvent . the level of the solvent must start below the sample. Many solvents are used in
chromatography. Water and organic solvents such as ethanol are common. organic solvents are
useful because they dissolve many substances which are insoluble in water. When an organic
solvent is used the process is carried out in a tank with a lid to stop the solvent evaporating. The
substances separate according to their solubility in the solvent. As the solvent moves up the
paper, the substances are carried with it and begin to separate. The substance that is most
soluble moves fastest up the paper. An insoluble substance would remain at the origin. The run
is stopped just before the solvent front reaches the top of the paper. The solvent front is the
furthest point that the solvent reaches up the chromatography paper. A filter paper can be used
as a chromatography paper.
The distance moved by a particular spot is measured and related to the positon of the solvent
front. The ratio of these distances is called the R f value.

Rf

Every substance has a specific Rf value in a given solvent, so Rf values can be used to identify a
substance.
Chromatography is used to separate both coloured and non-coloured substances. For non-
coloured substances the chromatogram (chromatography paper) is treated with locating agent
after the run. The agent reacts with the samples to produce coloured spots.

Application of paper chromatography

 Identify substances in a mixture
 Check purity of a substance
 Identify how many substances in a mixture
  Detect traces of drugs in blood.
 Analyse materials at crime scene.
 Manufacture of pharmaceutical drugs in
industry.
 Refinement of fractions from fractional distillation of crude oil.
 Separation of dyes or extracts from plants.

Crystallisation

Purity
Purity of substances can be checked by
1. Chromatography – if only a single spot is seen on the chromatogram the substance is likely
to be pure. If several spots are seen the substance is likely to be impure.
2. Melting and boiling point of a substance – pure substances have a sharp melting and boiling
point. E.g the boiling point of pure water is exactly 100 oC. if a substance is impure, it melts
and boils over a range of temperatures.
Effects of impurities on melting and boiling point
Melting point- impurities decrease the melting point of a substance
Boiling point – impurities increase the boiling point of a substance

States of mater
Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass.
There are three states of matter, solid, liquid and gas.
SOLIDS
- fixed volume
- fixed shape
- incompressible
- do not flow
 Solid

Particles in solid:
- Are packed close together in orderly arrangement
- Have little empty space between them
- Can vibrate but cannot move freely about their fixed position
- Strong forces of attraction
LIQUIDS
- fixed volume
- no fixed shape – takes the shape of container
- incompressible
- flow easily
Liquid

Particles in liquid:
- Are packed closely but not orderly arranged
- Have little empty space between them but more than in solids
- Are not held fixed but free to move throughout liquid
- Weak forces of attraction

GASES
- no fixed volume
- no fixed shape
- compressible
- move in all direction
Gas

Particles in gas:
- Are far apart and in random arrangement
- Are free to move anywhere in the container
- Negligible forces of attraction

Kinetic theory of matter

The kinetic theory of matter states that all matter is made up of tiny particles which are in constant
motion.
Change in state

When heat energy is added

When heat energy is removed

As a gas is cooled, the movement of particles becomes slower and slower. The particles’ energy of
random motion decreases. Eventually, a temperature is reached such that the particles are attracted
to each other and pulled together into the liquid state. Further cooling causes further slowing down
of particle movement until the forces of attraction are strong enough to pull the particles together
into the fixed positions of the solid state.

Heating curve
The cooling curve

It is the opposite of the heating curve

Diffusion

Is the movement of particles from their region of high concentration to their region of low
concentration down a diffusion gradient.

Diffusion of gases
Bromine drops are placed into a jar. Another jar full of air is placed on top of jar with bromine,
separated with cover. Cover is removed and bromine evaporates, filling both jars with dense
reddish-brown bromine vapour.

Explanation:
Bromine particles move from lower jar into spaces between air particles in upper jar. At the same
time, air particles move down from upper jar to mix with bromine particles in lower jar.
Eventually, bromine and air particles are mixed completely.
Diffusion of liquids
The rate of diffusion is slower in liquids than in gases

Factors Affecting Rate of Diffusion

- Temperature
The higher the temperature, the more particles of matter absorb energy making them move faster,
the higher the rate of diffusion;
The lower the temperature, the slower the rate of diffusion.

- Mass of particles
Greater mass, the slower it diffuses;

Smaller mass, the faster it diffuses.

Comparing speeds of diffusion

A cotton soaked in aqueous ammonia and another soaked in hydrochloric acid are placed on
opposite sides of the tube. ammonia vapor and hydrochloric acid vapor diffuses in the tube. A
compound is produced inside the tube closer to the hydrochloric acid soaked cotton. This shows that
hydrochloric acid is heavier than ammonia.