PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY

STATES OF MATTER
1.1 understand the three states of matter in terms of the arrangement, movement and the energy of the particles.

In solids, the particles are very closely packed in a regular pattern. The particles vibrate around a fixed position. They energy between the particles
is a low energy. A solid has a fixed shape and cannot flow because their particles cannot move from place to place. It cannot be compressed
because their particles are close together and have no space to move into.

In Liquids, the particles are closely packed and is randomly arranged. The particles can move around each other and has a greater energy than
solids. Liquids can flow and take the shape of their container, because their particles can move around each other.

In Gases, the particles are far apart from each other and are randomly arranged. The particles can move quickly in all directions and has the highest
energy compared to liquids and solids. Gaseous particles can flow and completely fill their container because their, particles can move quickly in
all directions. Gaseous particles can be compressed, because their particles are far apart and have space to move into.

1.2 Understand the interconversions between the three states of matter in terms of:

The names of the interconversions, how they are achieved and the changes in arrangement, movement and energy of the particles.

Solid  Liquid- It is achieved by a process called melting. The solid is heated, causing it’s particles to gain more energy and vibrate. This
weakens the forces that hold the solid together, making the child expand. At a certain temperature (it’s melting point), the particles will have
enough energy to break free from their positions and thus the solid turns into a liquid.

Liquid  Solid – This is achieved through a process called freezing or solidifying. In this process, heat is removed. When a liquid is cooled, the
particles lose energy and slow down. They eventually stop moving, apart from vibrating in their fixed position. A solid has now been formed.

Liquid  Gas –A liquid becomes a gas through a process known as evaporating. In this process, heat is supplied. When a liquid is heated, the
particles gain more energy and this causes the particles to vibrate/ move faster. This weakens and breaks the bond holding the liquid together, as
the particles break away from each other and expand. The liquid is now has become a gas.

Gas  Liquid – This process of turning a gas into a liquid is known as condensing. Like freezing, within this process heat is removed. When you
cool a gas, the particles will lose energy. This loss in energy causes the particles to move at a much slower pace as they move close together.
Eventually, the particles will no longer have sufficient energy to move away as they bump into one another, and when this happens, the gas has
become a liquid.

Solid  Gas – A solid becomes a gas through a process known as sublimation (subliming). Sublimation refers to a solid becoming a gas without
becoming a liquid during this process. These reactions occur at temperatures and pressures below the triple point. (“the temperature and pressure at
which the solid, liquid and gaseous phrases of a given substance are all at equilibrium with one another”). This means that the particles will have
too much energy to remain in a liquid state and will instead become a gas.

Gas  Solid – A gas becomes a solid in a process known as deposition. This process refers to a gas becoming a solid and like sublimation not
going through a liquid phase in the process. This occurs when the temperature or pressure is below the triple point, and therefore the particles will
have too little energy to move around and remain in liquid form, so they form a solid.

1.3 understand how the results of experiments involving the dilution of coloured solution and diffusion of gases can be explained

Dilution of coloured solutions – Fill a beaker with water and add a crystal of potassium manganate (VII) and record observations. When Potassium
Manganate (VII) crystals are dissolved in water, purple colour solution forms. This occurs as both water and potassium manganate (VII) particles
are moving freely and sliding over each other, allowing them to mix to form a solution with a weaker colour than the original dye. As potassium
manganate (VII) particles are less concentrated, the final colour will be weaker.

Diffusion of Gases – Pace a jar of air on top of a jar of Bromine. Allow time for diffusion to take place and record the observations. Overtime,
Bromine gas will diffuse upwards into the jar of air. This occurs as large gaps between Air and Bromine particles allow them to move randomly
and collide with each other, mixing together to form a gas with lighter shade of brown. As Bromine particles are less concentrated, the final colour
will be weaker.

1.4 know what is meant by the terms:

Solvent:- the liquid in which a solute dissolves in

Solute:- the substance which dissolves in a liquid to form a solution

Solution:- the mixture formed when a solute dissolves in the solvent

Saturated solution:- A solution with the maximum concentration of solution dissolved in the solvent.

1.5C know what is meant by the term solubility in the units g per 100g of solvent
 Measurement of how much of a substance will dissolve in a given volume of solvent shown in the units of g per 100g of solvent.

1.6C understand how to plot and interpret solubility curves

Solubility graphs or curves represent solubility in g per 100g of water plotted against temperature. To plot a solubility curve, maximum mass of
solvent that can be dissolved in 100g of water before a saturated solution is formed, is determined at a series of different temperatures.

1.7C practical: investigate the solubility of a solid in water at a specific temperature

Prepare a two beakers, one as a hot water bath and one as an ice bath. Using a small measuring cylinder, measure out 4cm 3 of distilled water into a
boiling tube. On a balance weigh out 2.6g of ammonium chloride and add it to the boiling tube. Place the boiling tube into the ice bath and allow it
to cool while stirring. Note the temperature at which crystals first appear and record it in a table of results. Add 1cm 3 of distilled water then warm
the solution again to dissolve the crystals. Repeat the cooling process again noting the temperature at which crystals first appear. Continue the
steps until a total of 10cm3 of water has been added. Use the results to plot a solubility curve for ammonium chloride at different temperatures.
Solubility is on the y-axis and temperature is on the x-axis. In conclusion, the shape of the graph will allow to state the how the solubility varies
with temperature.

ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURES

1.8 understand how to classify a substance as an element, compound or mixture.

Element is a substance that is made up of only one kind of atom. It is a substance made up of atoms that all contain the same type of atom and
cannot be split into anything simple. Example: hydrogen, oxygen, carbon.

Compound is a pure substance made up of two or more elements chemically combined together and cannot be separated by any physical methods
of separation. Example. Calcium carbonate.

Mixture is a combination of two or more substances, either elements or compounds or both, that are not chemically joined together and can be
separated by physical methods of separation. Example: salt and water solution, air.

1.9 understand that a pure substance has a fixed melting and boiling point, but that a mixture may melt or boil over a range of temperatures

A pure substance contains only one substance, with no other substances mixed together so it has a fixed melting and boiling points as they consists
only one substance therefore all the molecules will have the same melting and boiling point. Mixture is a combination of two or more substances
that are not chemically joined together there it has a range of melting and boiling point as they consist of different substance that melt or boil at
different.

1.10 describe these experimental techniques for the separation of mixtures:

Simple distillation- used to separate a liquid and soluble solid from a solution or a pure liquid from a mixture of liquids. The solution is heated, and
the pure water evaporates producing a vapour which rises through the neck of the round bottomed flask. The vapour passes through the condenser,
where it cools and condenses, turning into the pure liquid that is collected in a beaker. After all the water is evaporated from the solution, only the
solid solute will be left behind.

Fractional distillation- used to separate two or more liquids that are miscible with one another. The solution is heated to temperature of the
substance with the lowest boiling point. This substance will rise and evaporate first, and vapours will pass through the condenser, where they cool
and condense, turning into a liquid that will be collected in a beaker. All substance is evaporated and collected, leaving behind the other
components of the mixture

Filtration- used to separate an undissolved solid from a mixture of the solid and a liquid/solution. A piece of filter paper is placed in a filter funnel
above a beaker. A mixture of insoluble solid and liquid is poured into the filter funnel. The filter paper will only allow small liquid particles to pass
through as filtrate. Solid particles are too large to pass through the filter paper so will stay behind as a residue.

Crystallisation- used to separate a dissolved solid from a solution, when the solid is much more soluble in hot solvent that in cold. The solution is
heated, allowing the solvent to evaporate, leaving a saturated solution behind. If the solution is saturated, crystals will form on the glass rod. The
saturated solution is allowed to cool slowly. Crystals begin to grow as solids will come out of solution due to solubility. The crystals are collected
by filtering the solution, they are washed with cold distilled water to remove impurities and are then allowed to dry.

Paper chromatography- Used to separate substances that have different solubilities in a given solvent. A pencil line is drawn on chromatography
paper and spots of the sample are placed on it. Pencil is used for this as ink would run into the chromatogram along with the samples. The paper is
then lowered into the solvent container, making sure that the pencil line sits above the level of the solvent, so the sample don’t wash into the
solvent container. The solvent travel up the paper by capillary action, taking some of the coloured substances with it. Different substances have
different solubilities so will travel at different rates, causing the substances to spread apart. Those substances with higher solubility will travel
further than the others. This will show the different components of the ink/dye. If two or more substances are the same, they will produce identical
chromatograms if the substance is a mixture, it will separate on the paper to show all the different components as separate spots. An impure
substance will show up with more than one spot, a pure substance should only show up with one spot.

1.11 understand how a chromatogram provides information about the composition of a mixture.
 Chromatogram shows the composition of mixture as different coloured substance and will spread apart as they have different solubilities so will
travel at different rates. Pure substance will only provide one spot on chromatogram during paper chromatography.

1.12 understand how to use the calculation of Rf values to identify the components of a mixture.

Calculating the Rf value allows chemist to identify unknown substances because it can be compared with Rf values of known substances under the
same conditions by dividing the distance travelled by substance and distance travelled by the solvent.

1.13 practical: investigate paper chromatography using inks/food colourings

Use a ruler to draw a horizontal pencil line 2cm from the end of the chromatography paper. Use a different capillary tube to a put a tiny spot of
each colouring A, B, C and D on the line. Use the fifth tube to put a small spot of the unknown mixture U on the line. Make sure each spot is no
more that 2-3 mm diameter and label each spot in pencil. Pour water into the beaker to a depth of no more than 1cm and clip the top of the
chromatography paper to the wooden spill. The top end is the furthest from the spots. Carefully rest the wooden spill on the top edge of the beaker.
The bottom edge of the paper should dip into the solvent. Allow the solvent to travel undistributed at least three quarters of the way up the paper.
Remove the paper and draw another pencil line on the dry part of the paper as close to the wet edge as possible. This is called the solvent front
line. Measure the distance in mm between the two pencil lines. This is the distance travelled by the water solvent. For each of food colour A, B, C
and D measure the distance in mm from the start line to the middle of the spot. Record your results in a suitable table. The R f values of food
colours A, B, C and D should be compared to that for the unknown sample as well as a visual comparison being made. In conclusion, the use of
chromatography and Rf values is a variable method of identifying unknown mixtures given reference material.

ATOMIC STRUCTURE
1.14 know what is meant by the terms atom and molecule.

Atom is the smallest particle of an element that consists of electrons surrounding a nucleus that contains protons and neutrons. Molecule is a group
of two or more atoms chemically joined together forming an identifiable unit which retains the properties and composition of the substance.

1.15 know the structure of an atom in terms of the positions, relative masses and relative charges of sub-atomic particles.

Each atom is made up of subatomic particles called protons, neutrons and electrons. The nuclei of all atoms contains protons and neutrons. The
masses of the subatomic particles are very tiny. Instead of writing their actual masses in kilograms, we often use their relative masses. Electrons
are the subatomic particles with a negative charge (-1) and a negligible mass (1/1836) relative to protons and neutrons. Protons are the subatomic
particle with a positive charge ad a relative mass of 1 and a relative charge of +1. Neutrons are the uncharged subatomic particles with a mass of 1
relative to a proton and a relative charge of 0.

1.16 know what is meant by the term atomic number, mass number, isotopes and relative atomic mass (A r)

o Atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.

o Mass number is the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom
o Isotopes are atoms of the same element containing the same number of protons and electrons but a different number of neutrons. Therefore they
have the same atomic number but a different mass number.
o Relative atomic mass is the weighted average mass of one atom of an elements, taking into account the abundance of all the isotopes of that
element. It is measured as a ration 1/12 of the mass of an atom of carbon-12.

1.17 be able to calculate the relative atomic mass of an element (A r) from isotopic abundances.

( % of isotope a ×mass of isotope a ) +(% of isotope b ×mass of isotope b)

Ar=
100

THE PERIODIC TABLE

1.18 understand how elements are arranged in the periodic table

In order atomic number- elements are arranged on the periodic table in order of increasing atomic number. Each elements has one proton or more
than the element preceding it. This is done so that element end up in columns with other elements which have similar properties.

In groups and periods- The table is arranged in vertical columns called groups and in rows called periods. Period are the horizontal rows that show
the number of shells of electrons an atom has and are numbered from 1-7. Groups are the vertical columns that show how many outer electrons
each atom has and are numbered from 1-7 with a final group called group 0 instead of group 8.

1.19 understand how to deduce the electronic configurations of the first 20 elements from their positions in the periodic table.

Electronic configuration is the arrangement of electrons into shells for an atom. The number of notations in the electronic configuration will show
the number of shells of electrons the atom has, showing the period. The last notation shows the number of outer electrons the atom has, showing
the group
1.20 understand how to use electrical conductivity and the acid-base characters of oxides to classify elements as metals or non-metals

Metals have 1-3 outer shell electrons. It is metallic due to loss of outer shell electrons. They are good conductors of electricity. Basic oxides. Many
of the metals react with acids. Malleable, can be bent and shaped and has a high melting and boiling point.

Non-metals have 4-7 electrons in the outer shell. It is covalent by sharing of outer shell electrons. They are poor conductors of electricity. Form
acidic oxides. Do not react with acids. Flaky, brittle and has a low melting and boiling point.

1.21 identify an element as a metal or a non-metal according to its position in the Periodic table

Metals on the left of the Periodic table. Non-metals on the top-right plus Hydrogen.

1.22 understand how the electronic configuration of a main group element is related to its position in the Periodic table.

Electronic configuration is the arrangement of electrons into shells for an atom. The last notation shows the number of outer electrons the atom
has, showing the main group of that specific element.

1.23 understand why element in the same group of the Periodic table have similar chemical properties.

Elements in the same group in the periodic table will have similar chemical properties. This is because they have the same number of outer
electrons so will react and bond similarly. The group number of an element which is given on the periodic table indicates the number of electrons
in the outer shell. This rule holds true for all elements except for helium, although is in group 0, it has only one shell, the first and innermost shell,
which holds only 2 electrons. We can use the group number to predict how element will react as the number of valence shell electrons in an
element influences how the element reacts. Therefore, elements in the same group react similarly. By observing the reaction of one element from a
group, you can predict how the other elements in the same group will react. By reacting two or more elements from the same group and observing
what happens in those reactions you can make predictions about reactivity and establish trends in reactivity in that group.

1.24 understand why the noble gases or group 0 do not readily react

The elements in the group 0 of the periodic table are the noble gases. They are all non-metal, monatomic or exists as single atoms, colourless and
non-flammable gases at room temperature. The group 0 elements all have full outer shells of electrons; this electronic configuration is extremely
stable. Elements participate in reaction to complete their outer shells by losing, gaining or sharing electrons. The Group 0 elements do not need to
do this, because of their full outer shells which makes them unreactive and inert.

CHEMICAL FORMULAE, EQUATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

1.25 write word equations and balanced chemical equations (including state symbols): For reactions studied in this specification, For unfamiliar reactions
where suitable information is provided

Word equation : Sodium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid  sodium chloride + water

Balanced chemical equation : 2NaOH + 2HCl  2NaCl + 2H20

Balanced chemical equation with state symbols : 2NaOH (aq) + 2HCl (aq)  2NaCl (aq) + 2H2O (l)

1.26 calculate the relative formula mass (including relative molecular masses) (M r) from relative atomic mass (Ar)

Relative formula mass is the total mass of the substance. To calculate the Mr of a substance, you have to add up the relative atomic masses of all
the atoms present in the formula.

1.27 know that the mole (mol) is the unit for the amount of a substance.
 Chemical amounts are measured in moles. The symbol for the unit mole is mol. One mole of a substance contains the same number of stated
particles, atoms, molecules or ions as one mole of any other substance. The number of atoms, molecules or ions in a mole (1mol) of a given
substance is the Avogadro constant. The value of the Avogadro constant is 6.02 × 10 23 per mole.

1.28 understand how to carry out calculations involving amount of substance, relative atomic mass (A r) and relative formula mass (Mr).

Mass= number of moles × molar mass

1.29 calculate reacting masses using experimental data and chemical equations

Chemical equations can be used to calculate the moles or masses of reactants and products. To do this, information given in question is used to
find the amount of moles of the substances being considered. Then the ratio between the substances is identified using balanced chemical equation.
Once the moles have been determined they can then be converted into grams using the relative atomic or relative formula masses

Example: Calculate the mass od magnesium oxide that can be made by completely burning 6.0g of magnesium in oxygen in the following
reaction: 2Mg (s) + O2 (g)  2MgO (s)

1.30 calculate the percentage yield

Yield is the term used to describe the amount of product you get from a reaction. Percentage yield is a way of measuring how successful a
chemical process is.

actual yield
percentage yield= ×100
theoretical yield
Actual yield is the recorded amount of product obtained whereas theoretical yield is the amount of product that would be obtained under perfect
practical and chemical conditions

1.31 understand how the formulae of simple compounds can be obtained experimentally, including metal oxides, water and salts containing water of
crystallisation

The formulae of simple compounds can be found by careful experimentation and accurate measurements of mass changes.

Metal oxides: Measure mass of crucible with lid. Add sample of metal into crucible and measure mass with lid (calculate the mass of metal by
subtracting the mass of empty include). Strongly heat the crucible over a Bunsen burner for several minutes. Frequently lift the lid to allow
sufficient air into the crucible for the metal to fully oxidise without letting Magnesium oxide escape. Continue heating until the mass of crucible
remains constant (maximum mass), indicating that the reaction is complete. Measure the mass of the crucible and contents (calculate the mass of
metal oxide by subtracting the mass of empty crucible. Mass of metal can be found by subtracting the mass of the crucible from metal and mass of
the empty crucible. Mass of oxygen can be found by subtracting the mass of the metal used from the mass of magnesium oxide. To find the
formulae, divide each of the two masses by relative atomic masses of elements, simplify the ration and represent the ratio into the metal.

Metal Oxygen

Mass x y
 Mass/Mr x/Mr y/Mr

Ratio a : b

Water and salts containing water of crystallisation- Measure the mass of evaporating dish. Add a known mass of Hydrated Salt. Heat using a
bunsen burner and stir until blue salt turns completely white, indicating that all the water has been evaporated and lost. Record the mass of the
evaporating dish and contents. Mass of white anhydrous salt can be found by measuring the mass of white Anhydrous salt remaining. Mass of
water can be found by subtracting the mass of white anhydrous salt remaining from the mass of known hydrated salt. The formulae can be found
by dividing each of the two masses by the relative atomic mass of element, simplifying the ratio of water to anhydrous salt.

Anhydrous salt Water

Mass a b

Mole a/Mr b/Mr

Ratio 1 : x

1.32 know what is meant by the terms empirical formula and molecular formula.

Empirical formula is the simplest whole number ratio of the atoms of each element present in one molecule or formula unit of compound.
Molecular formula is the formula that shows the number and type of each atom in a molecule.

1.33 calculate empirical and molecular formulae from experimental data

The empirical formula can be calculated using the knowledge of the ratio of masses of each element in the compound. Molecular formula can be
found by dividing the relative formula mass of the molecular formula by the relative formula mass of the empirical formula and then multiplying
the number of each element present in the empirical formula by this number to find the molecular formula.

Example: The empirical formula of X is C4H10S1 and the relative formula mass of Xi s 180. What is the molecular formula of X?

=(C × 4) + (H × 10) + (S × 1)
=(12 × 4) + (1 × 10) + 32
= 90
180 ÷ 90
=2
(C4 × 2) + (H10 × 2) + (S 1 × 2)
= (C8) + (H20) + (S2)
= C8H20S2

1.34C understand how to carry out calculations involving amount of substance, volume and concentration (in mol/dm 3) of solution.

Concentration is the amount of solute there is in a specific volume of the solvent

number of moles of solute

concentration=
volume of solution

number of moles of solute

volume of solution=
concentration
number of moles = concentration × volume of the solution
Example: Calculate the concentration of a solution of sodium hydroxide NaOH, in mol dm -3, when 80g is dissolved in 500 cm3 of water.
1.35C understand how to carry out calculations involving gas volumes and the molar volume of a gas

Volume of Gas (dm3) = Moles × Molar volume (24 dm3)

Volume of Gas (cm3)= Moles × Molar volume (24 000 cm3)

1.36 practical: know how to determine the formula of a metal oxide by combustion or by reduction

Combustion- Measure mass of crucible with lid. Add sample of metal into crucible and measure mass with lid (calculate the mass of metal by
subtracting the mass of empty include). Strongly heat the crucible over a Bunsen burner for several minutes. Frequently lift the lid to allow
sufficient air into the crucible for the metal to fully oxidise without letting Magnesium oxide escape. Continue heating until the mass of crucible
remains constant (maximum mass), indicating that the reaction is complete. Measure the mass of the crucible and contents (calculate the mass of
metal oxide by subtracting the mass of empty crucible. Mass of metal can be found by subtracting the mass of the crucible from metal and mass of
the empty crucible. Mass of oxygen can be found by subtracting the mass of the metal used from the mass of magnesium oxide. To find the
formulae, divide each of the two masses by relative atomic masses of elements, simplify the ration and represent the ratio into the metal.

Metal Oxygen

Mass x y

Mass/Mr x/Mr y/Mr

Ratio a : b

Reduction- measure mass of empty boiling tube. Place metal oxide into a horizontal boiling tube and measure the mass again. Support the tube in a
horizontal position held by a clamp. A steady stream of natural gas is passed over the copper (II) oxide and the excess gas is burned off. The
copper (II) oxide is heated strongly using a bunsen burner. Heat until metal oxide completely changes colour, meaning that all the oxygen has been
removed. Measure mass of the tube remaining metal powder and subtract the mass of the tube. The mass of the metal can be found by measuring
the mass of the remaining metal powder. Mass of oxygen can be found by subtracting the remaining metal powder from the mass of metal oxide.
To found the empirical formula, divide each of the two masses by the relative atomic masses of element and then simplify the ratio.

Metal Oxygen

Mass a b

Mole a/Mr b/Mr

Ratio x : y

IONIC BONDING
1.37 understand how ions are formed by electron loss or again

An ion is an electrically charged atom or group of atoms formed by the loss or gain of electrons. This loss or gain of electrons takes place to obtain
a full outer shell of electrons. Negative ions are called anions and from when atoms gain electrons, meaning they have more electrons than protons.
Positive ions are called cations and form when atoms lose electrons, meaning they have more protons than electrons. All metals lose electrons to
other atoms to become positively charged ions. All non-metals gain electrons from other atoms to become negatively charged ions.

1.38 know the charges of these ions: metals in Group 1, 2 and 3, non-metals in group 5, 6 and 7. Ag +, Cu2+, Fe2+, Fe3+, Pb2+, Zn2+, hydrogen, hydroxide,
ammonium, carbonate, nitrate, sulfate.

The charges of Common Positive Ions

 The charges of common negative ions

Ion Charge
Group 5 non-metals  -3
Group 6 non- metals  -2
Group 7 non- metals  -1
Hydroxide  OH-
Carbonate  CO32-
Nitrate  NO3-
Nitride  N3-
Nitrite  NO2-
Sulfate  SO42-
Sulfide  S2-
Sulfite  SO32-
Hydride  H-
Phosphate  PO43-
Oxide  O2-
Hydrogen Carbonate  HCO3-
Hydrogen Phosphate  HPO42-

1.39 write formulae for compounds formed between the ions listed above.

The formulae of simple ionic compounds can be calculated if you know the charge on the ions. For ionic compounds you have to balance the
charge of each part by multiplying each ion until the sum of the charges= 0.

Example: Aluminium Sulfate

Al3+ S042-

Cross multiply the charges

Al2(SO4)3

1.40 draw dot-and-cross diagrams to show the formation of ionic compounds by electron transfer, limited to combinations of elements from Groups 1, 2, 3
and 5, 6, 7 only outer electrons need be shown.
 Sodium is a group 1 metal so will lose one outer electron to another atom to gain a full outer shell of electrons. A positive sodium ion
with the charge +1 is formed. Chlorine is a group 7 non-metal so will need to gain an electron to have a full outer shell of electrons. One
electron will be transferred from the outer shell of the sodium atom to the outer shell of the chlorine atom. A chlorine atom will gain an
electron to form a negatively charged chloride ion with a charge of -1.

1.41 understand ionic bonding in terms of electrostatic attractions

Ionic bonding is a strong electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions, formed by the transfer of electrons from one atom to another.
The positive and negative charges are held together by the strong electrostatic forces of attraction between oppositely charged ions.

1.42 understand why compounds with giant ionic lattices have high melting and boiling points

Giant three dimensional lattice structure held together by the strong attraction between oppositely charged ions with many of these ions and bonds
in structure. Due to this large amounts of heat energy is needed to overcome these forces of attraction and break down the bonds. Therefore to
break these bonds ionic substances have high melting and boiling points.

1.43 know that ionic compounds do not conduct electricity when solid, but do conduct electricity when molten and in aqueous solution.

For electrical current to flow there must be present freely moving charged particles such as electrons or ions. Ionic compounds can conduct
electricity in the molten state or in solution as they have ions that can move and carry charge. They cannot conduct electricity in the solid states as
the ions in fixed positions within the lattice and are unable to move.

COVALENT BONDING
1.44 known that a covalent bond is formed between atoms by the sharing of a pair of electrons.

Bond between non-metal and non-metal involving a shared pair of electron between the two atoms, resulting in a strong attraction between the
shared pair of electrons and the nuclei of the atoms involved.

1.45 understand covalent bonds in terms of electrostatic attractions

There is a strong electrostatic attraction between the shared pair of electrons in the bonds.

1.46 understand how to use dot-and-cross diagrams to represent covalent bonds in: diatomic molecules, inorganic molecules and organic molecules.

Diatomic molecules
 Inorganic molecules

Organic molecules

1.47 explain why substances with a simple molecular structures are gases or liquids, or solids with low melting and boiling points

Simple molecular structures have covalent bonds joining the atoms together, but intermolecular forces that act between neighbouring molecules.
They have low melting and boiling points as there are only weak intermolecular forces acting between the molecules hence, only small amounts of
heat energy is needed to overcome forces and break down bonds

1.48 explain why the melting and boiling points of substances with simple molecular structure increase, in general, with increasing relative molecular mass.

As relative molecular mass of a substance increases, melting and boiling point will increase in correlation. As the increase in relative molecular
mass of a substances means there are more covalent bonds in the structure, more intermolecular forces of attraction are needed to be broken down.
Hence, larger amounts of heat energy is needed to overcome these forces and break down the bonds.

1.49 explain why substances with giant covalent structures are solids with high melting and boiling points.

Giant covalent structure contains many non-metal atoms joined to adjacent atoms by covalent bonds, forming a giant lattice structure. Substance
with giant covalent structure are solids with high melting and boiling points as with many strong covalent bonds that needs to be broken down,
large amounts of heat is needed to overcome forces and break down bonds

1.50 explain how the structures of diamond, graphite and C60 fullerene influence the physical properties, including electrical conductivity and hardness

Diamonds- Hard because each carbon atom is joined to four other carbon atom to form a giant covalent structure and strong covalent bonds are
difficult to break. Have high melting points because giant covalent structure so there are many strong covalent bonds that need to be broken down
therefore large amounts of heat energy is therefore needed to overcome forces and break down bonds. Do not conduct electricity because all four
valence electrons are used in covalent bonds so there are no delocalised electrons that are mobile to conduct electricity. Used for cutting tools and
jewellery.

Graphite- Soft and slippery because forces of attraction between layers are weak so layers can easily slide over one another and be separated. High
melting (sublimates) because giant covalent structure so there are many strong covalent bonds that needs to be broken down so large amounts of
heat energy is needed to overcome forces and break down bonds. Conducts electricity because only three valence electrons are used in forming
covalent bonds, fourth electron is delocalised and free to move between layers to conduct an electric change. Used as a lubricant and as electrodes
for electrolysis

C60 Fullerene- Soft because each carbon atom is joined to only three other carbon atoms so has weak intermolecular force of attraction between
molecules therefore bonds can be broken down easily making it soft. Low melting and boiling points because each carbon atom is joined to only
three other carbon atoms so has weak intermolecular forces of attraction between molecules hence, only small amounts of heat energy is needed to
overcome forces and break down bonds. Conducts electricity because only three valence electrons are used in forming covalent bonds fourth
electron is delocalised and free to move to conduct an electric charge. Used as drug delivery system in the body (nanotubes), as a lubricant and as a
catalyst.

1.51 know that covalent compounds do not usually conduct electricity

Covalent compounds do not conduct electricity as all valence electrons are used in forming covalent bonds, therefore no delocalised electrons are
free to move to conduct an electric charge.
METALLIC BONDING
1.52C know how to represent a metallic lattice by a 2-D diagram

Giant two-dimensional lattice structure of positive ions surrounded by a sea of delocalised electrons.

1.53C understand metallic bonding in terms of electrostatic attractions.

Metal atoms are held together strongly by metallic bonding. Metallic bonding is a strong electrostatic force of attraction between metal ions and
the delocalised electrons

1.54C explain typical physical properties of metals, including electrical conductivity and malleability.

High melting and boiling points because there are many strong metallic bonds in giant metallic structures so large amounts of heat energy is
needed to overcome forces and break down bonds. Good conductors of electricity because delocalised electrons are free to move to conduct an
electric charge when a potential difference is applied across the metal. Malleable and ductile because layers of positive ions can easily slide over
one another and take up different positions. Delocalised electrons will move with them so metallic bonds are not broken.

ELECTROLYSIS
1.55C understand why covalent compounds do not conduct electricity

• Covalent compounds do not conduct electricity as all valence electrons are used in forming covalent bonds, therefore there are no delocalised
electrons that are free to move to conduct an electric charge

1.56C understand why ionic compounds conduct electricity only when molten or in aqueous solution

Ionic compounds cannot conduct electricity when in solid state as ions are fixed in structure and are not free to move. However, ionic compounds
can conduct electricity when molten or in aqueous solution as their ions are free to move to conduct an electric charge

1.57C know that anion and cation are terms used to refer to negative and positive ions respectively

ANION: Negative ions (Non-Metals) that are attracted to the positive electrode

REACTION AT THE POSITIVE ELECTRODE (ANODE)

Anions (Negative Non-Metal ions) are attracted to the positive electrode

When they get to the electrode, they lose Electrons to form atoms

Example: When Lead (II) Bromide is electrolysed, Bromide ion loses an electron to form Bromine atoms:

2Br - - 2e- → Br2

*Bromine is Formed at the Positive Electrode

*ATION: Positive ions (Metals) that are attracted to the negative electrode

REACTION AT THE NEGATIVE ELECTRODE (CATHODE)

Cations (Positive Metal ions) are attracted to the negative electrode

When they get to the electrode, they gain electrons to form Atoms

Example: When Lead (II) Bromide is electrolysed, Lead (II) Ions gain electrons to form Lead atoms

Pb2+ + 2e- → Pb

*Lead is Formed at the Negative Electrode

1.58C describe experiments to investigate electrolysis, using inert electrodes, of molten compounds (including lead(II) bromide) and aqueous solutions
(including sodium chloride, dilute sulfuric acid and copper(II) sulfate) and to predict the products

ELECTROLYSIS OF MOLTEN IONIC COMPOUNDs

Example: The electrolysis of molten lead bromide (PbBr2)

Solid lead bromide is heated and becomes molten. Explanation: ions become free to move.

Electrodes attached to a power source are placed in the molten lead bromide. Explanation: these electrodes are made of either graphite or platinum
because both conduct electricity and are fairly unreactive.
From the diagram, the left-hand electrode becomes positively charged, this is called the anode. The right-hand becomes negatively charged, this is
called the cathode. Explanation: delocalised electrons flow from the anode to the cathode.

At the anode a brown gas is given off. This is bromine gas (Br2(g)). Explanation: Negatively charged bromide ions are attracted to the anode
(positive electrode). At the anode, bromide ions lose electrons (oxidation) and become bromine molecules.

At the cathode a shiny substance is formed. This is molten lead (Pb(l) ). Explanation: Positively charged lead ions are attracted to the cathode
(negative electrode). At the cathode, lead ions gain electrons (reduction) and become lead atoms.

Overall Reaction

word equation: lead bromide –> lead + bromine

chemical equation: PbBr2(l) –> Pb(l) + Br2(g)

ELECTROLYSATION OF IONIC SUBSTANCES

The electrolysis of sodium chloride solution (NaCl(aq))

Solid sodium chloride is dissolved in water. Explanation: The sodium ions and chloride ions become free to move.

The solution also contains hydrogen ions (H+) and hydroxide ions (OH–). Explanation: Water is a very weak electrolyte. It ionises very slightly to
give hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions:

H2O(l) ⇋ H+(aq) + OH–(aq)

Chloride ions (Cl–) and hydroxide ions (OH–) are attracted to the anode.

Sodium ions (Na+) and hydrogen ions (H+) are attracted to the cathode.

At the anode a green gas is given off. This is chlorine gas (Cl2(g)). Explanation: chloride ions lose electrons (oxidation) and form molecules of
chlorine. The chloride ions react at the anode instead of the hydroxide ions because the chloride ions are in higher concentration. The amount of
chlorine gas produced might be lower than expected because chlorine is slightly soluble in water.

Electron half equation: 2Cl–(aq) –> Cl2 (g) + 2e–

At the cathode a colourless gas is given off. This is hydrogen gas (H2(g)). Explanation: hydrogen ions gain electrons (reduction) and form
molecules of hydrogen. The hydrogen ions react at the cathode because hydrogen is below sodium in the reactivity series.

Electron half equation: 2H+(aq) + 2e– –> H2 (g)

The solution at the end is sodium hydroxide (NaOH(aq)).

The electrolysis of copper sulfate solution (CuSO4(aq))

Copper sulfate solution is composed of copper ions (Cu2+), sulfate ions (SO42-), hydrogen ions (H+) and hydroxide ions (OH–).

At the cathode a brown layer is formed. This is copper. Explanation: copper ions gain electrons (reduction) and form atoms of copper. The copper
ions react at the cathode instead of hydrogen ions because copper is below hydrogen in the reactivity series.

Electron half-equation: Cu2+(aq) + 2e– –> Cu (s)

At the anode, bubbles of gas are given off. This is oxygen gas (O2(g)). Explanation: hydroxide ions lose electrons (oxidation) and form molecules
of oxygen and water. The hydroxide ions react at the anode instead of the sulfate ions because the hydroxide ions are less stable.

Electron half-equation: 4OH–(aq) –> O2 (g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e–

The electrolysis of sulfuric acid (H2SO4(aq))

Sulfuric acid is composed of sulfate ions (SO42-), hydrogen ions (H+) and hydroxide ions (OH–).

At the cathode bubbles of gas are formed. This is hydrogen gas (H2(g)). Explanation: hydrogen ions gain electrons (reduction) and form molecules
of hydrogen.

Electron half-equation: 2H+(aq) + 2e– –> H2(g)

At the anode, bubbles of gas are given off. This is oxygen gas (O2(g)). Explanation: hydroxide ions lose electrons (oxidation) and form molecules
of oxygen and water. The hydroxide ions react at the anode instead of the sulfate ions because the hydroxide ions are less stable.

Electron half-equation: 4OH–(aq) –> O2 (g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e–

 Twice the volume of hydrogen gas is produce compared to oxygen gas. Explanation: from the two half equations, O2 needs 4e– but H2 only needs
2e– as can be seen from the equation

2H2O(l) –> 2H2(g) + O2(g)

1.59C write ionic half-equations representing the reactions at the electrodes during electrolysis and understand why these reactions are classified as oxidation
or reduction

SOLUTION PRODUCT AT POSITIVE PRODUCT AT NEGATIVE

ELECTRODE ELECTRODE

LEAD (II) BROMIDE ( PbBr2 ) Bromine   -   Br2 Lead   -   Pb
2Br -     -     2e-     →     Br2 Pb2+     +     2e-     →     Pb

SODIUM CHLORIDE ( NaCl ) Chlorine - Cl Hydrogen - H2

2Cl-  -  2e-  →  Cl2 2H2O  +  2e-  →  H2  +  2OH-

DILUTE SULFURIC ACID Oxygen - O2 Hydrogen - H2

( H2SO4 ) 2H2O  -  4e-  →  O2  +  4H+ 2H+  +  2e-  →  H2

COPPER (II) SULFATE ( CuSO4 ) Oxygen - O2 Copper - Cu

2H2O  -  4e-  →  O2  +  4H+ Cu2+  +  2e-  →  Cu

1.60C practical: investigate the electrolysis of aqueous solutions

Add the aqueous solution to a beaker and cover the electrodes with the solution. Invert two small test tubes to collect any gaseous products.
Connect the electrodes to a power pack or battery. Turn on the power pack or battery and allow electrolysis to take place. Observations at each
electrode are made. Gases collected in the test tube can be tested and identified. If the gas produced at the cathode burns with a ‘pop’ when a
sample is lit with a lighted splint. This shows that the gas is hydrogen. If the gas produced at the anode relights a glowing splint dipped into a
sample of the gas. This shows that the gas is oxygen. If the anode gas bleaches of a piece of litmus paper this indicates chlorine is the product. If a
solid forms around the electrode, the metal have been formed. The colour can indicate the metal.

Conclusions: Sodium chloride solutions produces hydrogen at the cathode and chlorine at the anode. Dilute sulfuric acid produces hydrogen at the
cathode and oxygen at the anode. Copper(II)sulfate solution produces copper at the cathode an oxygen at the anode.
 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Group 1 (alkali metals) – lithium, sodium and potassium
2.1 understand how the similarities in the reactions of these elements with water provide evidence for their recognition as a family of elements

2.2 understand how the differences between the reactions of these elements with air and water provide evidence for the trend in reactivity in Group 1

2.3 use knowledge of trends in Group 1 to predict the properties of other alkali metals

2.4C explain the trend in reactivity in Group 1 in terms of electronic configurations