Chapter-1 Matter in Our Surroundings

Chapter-1 Matter in our surroundings
Introduction:
Matter:
 Matter is anything that has mass and volume.
 Anything that occupies space and can be felt by our one or more sense organs is
called matter.
Classification of Matter:
 Indian philosophers classified matter into five basic elements:
o Air
o Water
o Land
o Sky
o Fire
 Based on physical nature, matter is divided into three types:
o Solid
o Liquid
o Gas
 Based on chemical nature, matter is divided into three types:
o Elements
o Compounds
o Mixtures
Physical nature of Matter:
 Every matter is made up of certain particles which differ in shape, size and nature
from the other type of matter.
 The particles of matter are very small beyond our imagination.
Characteristics of Particles of Matter:
 Particles of matter are Minute.
 Particles of matter have Intermolecular spaces.
 Particles of matter have Kinetic energy.
 Particles of matter have Intermolecular forces.
 Particles of matter have Diffusion property.
 Particles of matter are Affected by temperature.
Minute:
 An atom is the smallest unit of any form of matter.

 Let’s perform an activity to understand.
 Add few drops of red ink in a beaker with the help of a dropper. Now, with the help
of a measuring cylinder take 10 mL from the resulting solution in first beaker and
pour that in other beaker. Now, repeat the procedure with another beakers.
 We see that colour of the solution becomes light with every dilution.
 So, we can conclude here that there must be millions of atoms in just a few drop of
red ink which keep on spreading and impacting red colour on more and more of
water.
Intermolecular spaces:
 Intermolecular space is the space between the molecules.

 The spaces between the particles of matter can be shown by performing this activity.
 The adding of salt in 100 mL of water did not change the volume of water.
 Thus this activity tells that the particles of water have spaces between them and that
the particles of salt fit in these spaces.
Kinetic energy:
 The constant movement of particles is called as Kinetic energy.

 We have already seen that a small amount of ink or potassium permanganate can
be spread throughout the water.
 Similarly, when we make flavoured drinks like nimbupani or brew our favourite tea,
coffee, their particles gets into the spaces between the particles of water.
 You must have observes that if a person is wearing certain perfume, you can smell it
for a good distance.
 Similarly, you can smell an incense stick lightened at the other end of the room.
Intermolecular forces:
 Molecules constituting a giving a substance are very small and then cannot be seen
under a microscope. These molecules attract each other with a force. This force is
called intermolecular force.
 There are some forces of attraction between the particles of matter, which bind them
together.
 The force of attraction is different in the particles of different kinds of matter.
 We will observe that chalk breaks into small pieces, more force is required to break
wooden piece and iron nails are very harder to break.
 Thus, this activity shows the presence of the forces of attraction between the
particles.
 It also shows that the forces of attraction have varied strengths in different particles
of matter.
Diffusion property:
 Intermixing of particles of two different types of matter on their own is called

diffusion.
 Diffusion is a process in which molecules of a substance move from higher
concentration to lower concentration and goes until a uniform mixture is formed.
 For example: Potassium permanganate in water.
 Rate of diffusion is faster for gases as compared to liquids. Solids do no diffuse.
 For example: A drop of red ink diffuses faster in water as compared to a drop of
honey.
 Smell of food reaches our nose due to diffusion:
o As the rate of diffusion is faster at hotness, the smell of hot food cooking in
the kitchen reaches us quickly as compared to the cooked food kept at normal
climate.
Affected by temperature:
 Movement of particles increases on increasing the temperature i.e., the particles

move faster at high temperature.
 Therefore, the ink will diffuse faster in hot water than in cold water. The particles of
hot water have move movement and they will intermix faster with the ink particles.
 Another example: Salt dissolves quickly in hot water as compared to cold water.
States of Matter:
Solids:
Properties:
 Solids have definite shape, fixed volume, distinct boundaries and have negligible
compressibility.
 Solids either don not diffuse or diffuse at very low rate.
 Solids have a tendency to maintain their shape when subjected to outside force.
 Solids may break under force, but it is difficult to change their shape, so they are
rigid.
 Generally, solids have higher densities as compared to their liquids or gaseous
forms.
Molecular Structure:
 Intermolecular spaces are very small.
 Intermolecular forces are very large.
 Molecules can vibrate from their mean position but cannot change their position.
 Therefore, solids have definite shape, definite volume and are incompressible.
Facts:
 Sponge is a solid; still it can be compressed because it contains pores in which the
air trapped. During compression, the air trapped in the pores comes out.
 Sugar acquires the shape of the container in which it is kept; still it is called solid
because the shape of the individual crystal remains the same.
 Although, the solids have a fixed shape, yet rubber band which is a solid, can
change its shape under pressure. It regains its shape when the pressure is
removed.
Liquids:
Properties:
 Liquids have fixed volume but no fixed shape; they take the shape of the container.
 Liquids flow and change shape. So they are not rigid, but can be called fluid.
 Solids, liquids and gases can diffuse into liquids.
 Liquids are almost incompressible.
 The attraction force between the liquid particles is greater than that of gases, but
less than that of solids.
 Density of liquid is less than of solid.
 The rate of diffusion of liquids is higher than that of solids as liquid particles can
move freely.
 Intermolecular spaces are somewhat large.
 Intermolecular forces are small as compared to solids.
 Liquid molecules have more kinetic energy than solids.
 Due to large intermolecular space and kinetic energy, the molecules can interchange
their positions.
 Therefore, liquids take the shape of the container and flow from higher level to lower
level.
Fact:
There is dissolved oxygen in water. The aquatic plants and animals survive on the
oxygen.
Gases:
Properties:
 Gases are highly compressible when compared to solids and liquids.
 Gases do not have definite shape and definite volume.
 Gases have mass and occupy the entire shape available.
 Gases have a tendency to flow and hence they are called as fluids.
 They have high diffusing tendency into other gases.
 In gaseous state, the particles move about randomly at high speed.
 The density of gas is minimum. It is lighter than the volume of solid and liquid.
 Intermolecular spaces are 1000 times more than the liquids.
 Intermolecular forces are almost negligible.
 The molecules are free to move in any direction.
 Therefore gases have no definite shape or volume.
 Kinetic energy of gases are maximum and they move randomly at high speed.
 Gas molecules hit the sides of the vessel and exert pressure on the container.
Fact:
LPG (Liquiefied Petroleum Gas) and CNG (Compressed Natural Gas) are fuels that are
based in the property of compressibility of gases. Large volume of gases is compressed
into small cylinder and therefore, can be transported easily.
Temperature:
 A measure of the degree of hotness or coldness of a body or environment.
 The most common scales used to measure the temperature are:
o Kelvin scale
o Celsius scale
Kelvin Scale or Absolute Scale:
 SI unit of measuring temperature is Kelvin.
 On this scale, the freeing point of water is 273 K and the boiling point of water is 373
K.
 The Kelvin and Celsius scales are related as follows:
K = 273 + °C
Celsius Scale:
 It is a more common scale for measuring the temperature.
 On this scale, the freezing point of water is 0°C and the boiling point of water is
100°C.
 The Celsius and Kelvin scales are related as follows:
°C = K – 273
Inter-conversion of States of Matter:
 The states of matter are inter-convertible.
 One state of matter can be changed to another state by changing the temperature or
pressure.
 The phenomenon of change of state of matter by changing the temperature or
pressure is called the inter-conversion of states of matter.
Fusion (Solid  Liquid):
 The process by which a solid changes into a liquid by absorbing heat is called
melting or fusion.
 When we heat a solid, the kinetic energy of its constituent particles increases and
they start vibrating at a great speed.
 This results in the conversion of a solid into a liquid.
 The solid changes into liquid at a particular temperature called melting point.
 Melting point is the temperature at which a solid substance melts to change into
liquid at atmospheric pressure.
 Melting point is the measure of the strength of attractive forces between the
constituent particles of solid.
 Every solid has a characteristic melting point.
Solid Melting point (K)
Ice 273
Gold 1337
Iron 1811
 The higher the melting point of a solid, more will be the attractive forces between the
constituent particles.
Latent Heat:
 The minimum amount of energy that changes the state of substance without bringing
any change in the temperature.
 This heat is used in the conversion of state and hence, is called Latent heat.
 Latent means Hidden.
Latent Heat
Latent heat of fusion Latent heat of vapourisation

Latent Heat of Fusion:
 Latent heat of fusion is the amount of heat energy required to change 1 kg of solid
into liquid at its melting point.
 The latent heat of ice is 80 kcal/kg.
 Ice at 0°C is more effective in cooling than water at 0°C.
 Ice absorbs 80 kcal/kg more energy from the substance that water and therefore,
cools more efficienctly.
Solidification (Liquid  Solid):
 The process of freezing is the reverse of melting. It is the process in which a liquid
converts into a solid.
 When the temperature is further decreased, the liquid freezes due to the forces of
attraction between the particles.
 Freezing point is the temperature at which a liquid changes into a solid by giving out
energy.
 The numerical value of freezing point and melting point of a substance is the same.
Melting point of water = Freezing point of water = 0°C (273 K)
Vapourisation (Liquid  Gas):
 The process in which a liquid changes into the gaseous state by absorbing the heat
energy is called boiling or vapourisation.
 When a liquid is heated, the kinetic energy of the particle increases.
 When the kinetic energy becomes high enough, the particles break free from the
forces of attraction and the liquid changes into gas.
 Boiling point is the temperature at which a liquid changes into a gas by absorbing
heat at atmospheric pressure.
 It is the measure of the strength of the attractive forces between the constituent
particles of a liquid.
 The higher the boiling point of liquid, the more will be the attractive forces between
the constituent particles.
 Liquids having low boiling points are volatile and those having high boiling points are
non-volatile.
 Every pure liquid has a fixed boiling point.
Liquid Boiling point (K)
Ethyl alcohol 351
Water 373
Mercury 630
Latent Heat of Vapourisation:
 Latent Heat of vapourisation is the amount of heat required to convert 1 kg of liquid
into gas at the atmospheric pressure at its boiling point.
 Latent heat of vapourisation of water is 540 kcal/kg.
 Steam at 100°C is more effective in heating the substances than water at 100°C.
 Burns caused by steam are more severe than those caused by the boiling water;
though both are at the same temperature (100°C).
 This is because; steam has 540 kcal/kg (latent heat) more energy than boiling water.
When steam condenses on skin, it gives out 540 kcal/kg more energy than the
boiling water.
Condensation (Gas  Liquid):
 The process by which a gas changes into a liquid by giving out heat energy is called
condensation or liquefaction.
 This process is the reverse of boiling.
 Condensation point is the temperature at which a gas changes into a liquid by giving
out heat energy at atmospheric pressure.
 The numerical value of condensation point and boiling point is the same.
Boiling point of water = Condensation point of water = 100°C
Sublimation (Solid  Gas):
 There are certain substances that, on heating, directly change into vapours.
 The change in state from solid to gas without passing through the liquid state on
heating is called sublimation.
 In stage shows or live performances, we might have seen fog or smoke effect.
 This effect is created by the sublimation of dry ice or solid carbon dioxide.
 Sublimation is the process by which solid directly changes into vapours on heating.
 Naphthalene, Camphor, Ammonium chloride, Iodine, Benzoic acid and Dry ice are
some examples of sublimating substances.
 Now, we are going to perform an activity to understand how ammonium chloride
sublimates.
 For this activity we need Ammonium Chloride, Cotton Wool, China Dish, Funnel,
Spirit Lamp, Tripod Stand and Wire gauze.
 Take some Ammonium chloride in a China dish.
 Invert a glass funnel over it.
 Plug the funnel with cotton wool to avoid the vapours to mix with air.
 Heat this mixture.
 Vapours are formed and are moving toward the cooler part of the funnel.
 These are vapours of Ammonium Chloride, because it is a sublimating substance.
 After some time, the whole amount of Ammonium Chloride sublimates.
Deposition (Gas  Solid):
 The direct change of gas to solid without changing into liquid is called as deposition.
 On cooling, solid Ammonium Chloride deposits on the inner surface of the funnel.
 This method is used for separating solid mixtures from in which one of the
components can sublimate on heating.
Change in State of Matter by Change of Pressure:
 An increase in the pressure decreases the space between the particles of the matter.
Therefore, a gas can be converted to a liquid and a liquid can be converted to a
solid.
 Dry ice (solid carbon dioxide) is formed by applying high pressure to gaseous carbon
dioxide.
Evaporation:
 Process of conversion of a liquid into its gaseous state at nay temperature below its
boiling point.
 Surface phenomenon.
 Evaporation results in cooling.
 The particles of the liquid do not move at the same speed and do not have the same
kinetic energy.
 The particles with higher kinetic energy break the forces of attraction and escape into
air. This is called evaporation.
 The particles of liquid absorb energy from the surroundings to retain the energy lost
during evaporation. This results in the cooling of the surroundings.
Factors Affecting Rate of Evaporation:
Surface area:
The rate of evaporation increases on increasing the surface area of the liquid.
Temperature:
The rate of evaporation increases on increasing the temperature of the liquid.
Humidity:
 The amount of water vapours present in the air is represented by the term ‘humidity’.
 When the humidity of the air is low, then the rate of evaporation is high and water
evaporates more readily.
 When the humidity of air is high, then the rate of evaporation is low and the water
evaporates very slowly.
Wind speed:
The rate of evaporation of liquid increases with an increasing wind speed.
Examples of Evaporation from our Daily Life:
 Liquids evaporate at a faster rate in summer than in winters because at a higher
temperature, more particles of liquid have enough kinetic energy to break the forces
of attraction to go into the gaseous state.
 Clothes dry up slowly during rainy season because air can only hold a definite
amount of water vapours at a given temperature.
o As the amount of vapours in the air is higher during the rainy season, the rate
of transfer of more water vapours to air through evaporation decreases.
 Clothes dry up quickly on a windy day because wind takes away the water vapours
along with it.
o This decreases the amount of water vapours present in the surroundings.
Thus, increasing the rate of evaporation.
 We sprinkle water in an open ground or on the roof top in summers because when
the water evaporates, it takes away huge amount of heat along with it.
o The amount of heat lost is equal to the heat of vapourisation of water.
 Pouring of nail polish remover (acetone) cools our palm because while evaporating,
the acetone takes away the heat from the palm.
 On a hot humid day, we feel comfortable while sitting under a fan because the sweat
dries quickly.
 Water in the earthern pots cools during summers.
o This pot has small pores from where the water evaporates.
o Water molecules take away the heat with them which is equal to the latent
heat of vapourisation of water leaving the cold water.
Evaporation:
 Liquids are of the mixtures of different things which may be solid or liquid or even
gases.
 Let us dissolve some salt in water.
 Look, a clear salt solution is prepared.
 Now, you cannot see particles of salt in this solution.
 If you place the salt solution in a plate, overnight the water will evaporate leaving the
salt in the plate.
 If we do this process by boiling the water, the water evaporates quickly in the form of
water vapour leaving the salt behind.
 The process of conversion of water into vapour is called evaporation.
 Evaporation is used to recover solid particles form the solutions.
 Common salt is obtained by evaporation of sea water.
 Sea water is tabbed in the compartments.
 In a few days, the water evaporates completely and salt is gotten collected in a
corner.
 Again, fresh sea water is tabbed and it is called salt forming.
Evaporation vs. Boiling:
 Boiling is a bulk phenomenon. Particles from the bulk (whole) of the liquid change
into vapour state.
 Evaporation is a surface phenomenon. Particles from the surface gain enough
energy to overcome the forces of attraction present in the liquid and change into the
vapour state.
Plasma:
 Scientists have discovered the fourth state of matter known as plasma.
 Plasma is a state of matter similar to gas in which a certain portion of particles are
ionised. It is a high energy, electrically charged mixture of ions and electrons.
 Plasma was first identified by Sir William Crookes in 1879. He named it as the
‘radiant matter’. It can be created artificially by heating gas in the vaccum tubes.
 It needs very strong heat.
 When heat is very strong electrons move away from their orbit creating Free
electrons and Positive ions.
 Plasma is neutral as there are equal protons and electrons.
 Since, free electrons are present, plasma can conduct electricity.
 This property separates gas from plasma as all gases does not conduct electricity.
 Naturally occurring plasmas are lightning and the northern lights i.e., auroras.
 When electric current is passed through fluorescent bulbs, the gas present in them
gets highly heated to split the electrons and change it into plasma for giving light.
 Plasma screen TVs are made up of thousands of plasma pixels.
 One plasma pixel is made of three fluorescent light electrodes namely Red, Green
and Blue.
 The combinations of these colours produce the image in TVs more sharp, clear and
deep.
 Plasma is the most common state of matter in the universe by mass as well as by
volume. All the stars are made of plasma but on Earth it only occurs in a few limited
places like lightning bolts, flames, auroras and fluorescent lights.
 Usually, plasma has very high electrical conductivity.
 Plasma’s particles are super energetic and super ionized.
 Plasma does not have definite shape or volume. It may self-generate magnetic
fields and electrical currents.
Bose-Einstein Condensate:
 In 1920, Satyendra Bose and Albert Einstein predicted a new state of matter but they
couldn’t prove its existence.
 In 1995, Cornell and Weiman proved the 5th State of Matter i.e., Bose-Einstein
Condensate.
 It is the gas containing rubidium atoms.
 When rubidium gas is condensated from 687.8°C to 39°C they change to liquid.
 The gas’s temperature is still reduced upto 0 K or -273°C (Absolute zero).
 But these temperatures are very hard to achieve and can only be achieved in a
laboratory.
 At these very low temperatures, the gas particles condense into a cluster, super
cooled liquid.
 Since the new matter does not have any energy and does not have separate
particles they are single super atom.
 The motion in these particles is ceased.
 These particles of Bose-Einstein Condensate are super cooled and super
unenergetic.
Bose-Einstein Condensate Solid Liquid Gas Plasma
Chapter-3 Atoms and Molecules

Laws of Chemical Combination
Introduction:
 Anything that has mass and occupies space is called matter.
 Matter is everything around us.
 Matter can exist in three states:
o Solid (Coin, Gold, Brick, Stairs…)
o Liquid (Tea, Juice, Milk, Cool Drink…)
o Gas (Hot air balloon, LPG, CNG, Perfume…)
 Everything in universe is matter like Food, Fabric, Sugar, Diamonds, Sand, Salt,
Gold, Stones, etc…
 Atom is the smallest particle of the element that cannot exist in Free State.
 Molecule is the smallest particle of a substance, which is capable of independent
existence under ordinary conditions.
Matter:
By the end of the eighteenth century, scientists recognised the difference between
the elements and the compounds and became interested in finding out how and why the
atoms combine and what happens when they combine.
Maharishi Kanad:
 All matter (‘Padarth’ in Hindi) is made up of small particles called parmanu.
 When we divide matter, small particles of matter are obtained.
 Eventually, we obtain the smallest particle of matter.
Matter Breaks down in small parts Divides into further smaller parts
Pakhuda Katyayama:
The particles of matter normally exist in a combined form and various combinations
of the particles give various forms of matter.
Democritus & Leucippus:
On further dividing the matter, a stage comes when particles obtained cannot be
divided any further.
Laws of Chemical Combination:
 Water, which is essential to survive, is made up of two different elements.
 When Hydrogen (H2) reacts with Oxygen (O) while burning, it gives Water (H 2O).
Laws of Chemical Combination
Law of Conservation of Mass Law of Constant Proportions

Law of Conservation of Mass:
Antonie Lavoisier:
 Mass can neither be created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction.
OR
 In a chemical reaction, the total mass of the products is equal to the total mass of the
reactants.
Example:
CaCO3
Calcium carbonate → CaO
Calcium oxide + CO2
Carbon dioxide
Mass of reactant (CaCO3) = 100 g
Mass of products (CaO+ CO2) = 100 g
It means that no mass is created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction.
Activity:
Aim:
Let us prove the law of conservation of mass by reacting lead nitrate and sodium
iodide.
Pb(NO3)2
Lead nitrate + 2Nal
Sodium iodide → Pbl2
Lead iodide Yellow ppt + 2NaNO3
Sodium nitrate
Materials required:
 Lead nitrate solution
 Sodium iodide solution
 100 mL Conical flask
 10 mL measuring cylinder
 Test tube stand
 Test tubes
 Digital balance
 Cork
Procedure:
 Drag the bottle of lead nitrate solution onto the workstation.
 Drag 10 mL measuring cylinder onto the workstation.
 Drag a clean and dry 100 mL conical flask onto the workstation.
 Open the lid of lead nitrate solution bottle.
 Pour 10 mL lead nitrate solution into the 10 mL measuring cylinder.
 Carefully pour this 10 mL lead nitrate solution into the 100 mL conical flask.
 Wash the 10 mL measuring cylinder and keep it on the workstation.
 Drag the test tube stand containing the test tubes onto the workstation..
 Drag the bottle of sodium iodide onto the workstation.
 Open the lid of sodium iodide bottle.
 Pour 10 mL sodium iodide into the 10 mL measuring cylinder.
 Carefully pour this 10 mL sodium iodide into the test tube.
 Put the test tube vertically upright inside the conical flask.
 Drag digital balance onto the workstation.
 Drag a rubber cork onto the workstation.
 Fix the rubber cork on the mouth of the conical flask.
 The mouth of the conical flask is closed in order to prevent the escape of gas.
 Weigh the flask containing reactants on the digital balance.
 Note down the reading of the balance i.e., 60.25 g.
 Keep the flask onto the workstation.
 Drop the solution of sodium iodide from the test tube into the solution of lead nitrate.
 Again weigh the flask along with the products on the digital balance.
 Note down the reading of the balance i.e., 60.25 g.
Precautions:
 The mouth of the test tube should remain above the liquid level, so that the reactants
do not mix.
 Always check for zero reading, before weighing any material.
 Carefully add the solution of sodium to the solution of nitrate by putting your thumb
on the cork.
 There should be no loss of mass due to evaporation.
Observation:
 The initial mass of the apparatus along with the reactants is 60.25 g.
 The yellow precipitate of Lead iodide is formed due to a chemical reaction between
Lead nitrate and sodium iodide.
 The final mass of the apparatus along with the products is 60.25 g.
Observation before reaction Observation after reaction
Result:
This experiment proves the law of conservation of mass because the total mass of
reactants is equal to the total mass of products.
Total mass of reactants = Total mass of products
60.25 g = 60.25 g
On adding sodium iodide solution to Lead nitrate solution, a yellow precipitate of lead
nitrate is formed but there is no change in the total mass, therefore, the law of conservation
of mass is verified.
Pb(NO3)2 2Nal
Lead
nitrate
+ Sodium
iodide
→ Pbl2
Lead iodide Yellow ppt + 2NaNO3
Sodium nitrate
Question:
If 8.3 g of NaHCO3 is added to 21.1 g of CH3COOH solution, the
residue (CH3COONa + H2O) is found to weigh 25.2 g. What is the mass of
CO2 released in the reaction?
Solution:
According to the question,
+ → +
NaHCO3 CH3COOH CH3COONa + H2O CO2
8.3 g 21.1 g xg
25.2 g
Sum of mass of reactants = Mass of NaHCO3 + CH3COOH
Sum of mass of reactants = 8.3 g + 21.1 g = 29.4 g
Sum of mass of products = Mass of residue (CH3COONa + H2O) + Mass of CO2
= 25.2 g + x g
According to the law of the conservation of mass,
Total mass of reactants = Total mass of products
29.4 g = 25.2 g + x g
x = 29.4 g – 25.2 g
x = 4.2 g
The mass of CO2 released in the reaction = 4.2 g
Law of Constant Proportions:

 Three water sources are Rain, Sea and well.
 Do you think the water obtained from these sources are different?
o Yes, Rain water acts as atmospheric purifier and it contains lots of pollutants.
o Well provides us good groundwater. It contains minerals such as Iron,
Arsenic, etc…
o Sea water contains dissolved salts or we can say that sea water is saline in
nature.
 But, the chemical composition of water is always same irrespective of its source.
 We can understand it through the law of constant proportions.
 This law was given by Joseph Proust in 1779.
Law of Constant Proportions:
A chemical compound always consists of the same elements combined together in
the same proportion by mass, independent of the method by which it is prepared, or the
source from which it is obtained.
Compound: AmBn:
Atomic mass of A = x u
Atomic mass of B = y u
Mass of m atoms of A = mx u
Mass of n atoms of B = ny u
Mass of A
Ratio of mass of element A and element B is
Mass of B
mx
= ny
Compound: H2O:
Atomic mass of H = 1 u
Atomic mass of O = 16 u
Mass of two atoms of H = 2 u
Mass of one atoms of O = 16 u
Mass of H
Ratio of mass of element H and element O in water is
Mass of O
2
= 16
= 1:8
H2O
H O
1:8
Water (H2O) contains hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) combined in the ratio of 1:8 by mass.
Compound: NH3:
Atomic mass of N = 14 u
Atomic mass of H = 1 u
Mass of one atoms of N = 14 u
Mass of three atoms of H = 3 u
Mass of N
Ratio of mass of element N and element H in ammonia is
Mass of H
14
= 3
= 14:3
NH3
N H
14:3
Ammonia is prepared by Haber’s process or any other chemical method or produced by
animals as excretory waste.
Compound: CaO:
Atomic mass of Ca = 40 u
Atomic mass of O = 16 u
Mass of one atoms of Ca = 40 u
Mass of one atoms of O = 16 u
Mass of Ca
Ratio of mass of element Ca and element O in calcium oxide is
Mass of O
40
= 16
= 5:2
CaO
Ca O
5:2
Compound Calcium oxide can be prepared by the following free methods:
(1) By heating calcium carbonate strongly.
CaCO3 → CaCO + CO2
(2) By heating calcium hydroxide strongly.
Ca(OH)2 → CaO + H2O
(3) By heating calcium nitrate strongly.
2Ca(NO3)2 → 2CaO + 4NO2 + O2
Example:
In an experiment 1.03 g of copper provides 1.288 g of copper oxide
and in another experiment 2.938 g of copper provides 3.672 g of copper
oxide. Show that this data proves law of constant proportions.
Solution:
First experiment:
Mass of copper = 1.03 g
Mass of copper oxide = 1.288 g
Mass of oxygen = mass of copper oxide – mass of copper
= (1.288 – 1.03) g
= 0.258 g
In the first sample of copper oxide compound,
Mass of Cu 1.03
=
Mass of O 0.258
= 4:1
Second experiment:
Mass of copper = 2.938 g
Mass of copper oxide = 3.672 g
Mass of oxygen = mass of copper oxide – mass of copper
= (3.672 – 2.938) g
= 0.734 g
In the first sample of copper oxide compound,
Mass of Cu 2.938
=
Mass of O 0.734
= 4:1
From these two experiments we can see that

Mass of Cu
( )
Mass of O exp 1
Mass of Cu
= ( Mass of O )exp 2
=
4:1
So we conclude that the given data proves the law of constant proportions.
Question:
A sample of magnesium carbonate was found to contain 28.6% of
magnesium, 14.3% of carbon and 57.1% of oxygen. By applying the law
of constant proportion, calculate the masses of Mg, C and O present in
30 g of another sample of magnesium carbonate.
Solution:
According to the law of constant proportion, both the samples will have the same
composition.
Hence, the masses of Mg, C and O in 30 g of MgCO 3 will be as follows:
28.6 ×30
Mg = = 8.58 g
100
14.3× 30
C= = 4.29 g
100
57.1× 30
O= = 17.31 g
100
Hence, the mass of Mg in 30 g of MgCO3 is 8.58 g, the mass of C in 30 g of MgCO3 is

4.29 g and the mass of O in 30 g of MgCO3 is 17.13 g.
Dalton’s Atomic Theory:
 Atom is not truly indivisible.
 That is, atom is truly divisible into Electron (e -), Proton (p+) and Neutron (n0).
 In 1803, a famous British chemist John Dalton (1766 – 1844) proposed basic theory
about the nature about the nature of matter.
 This theory is popularly known as “Dalton’s Atomic Theory”.
Postulates of ‘Dalton Atomic Theory’:
1. All matter whether an element, a compound or a mixture is made up of very tiny
particles called atoms.
2. An atom can neither be created nor destroyed.
3. Atoms of the same element are identical in size, shape, mass and chemical
properties.
4. Atoms of different elements have different sizes, masses and chemical properties.
5. Atoms of the same or different elements combine together to form molecules or
compounds.
6. Atoms combine in the ratio of small whole numbers to form compounds.
7. Atoms of two different elements may combine in different ratios to form more than
one compound.
8. The number and kind of atoms in a given compound is always fixed.
Questions:
1. In water, the proportion of oxygen and hydrogen, by mass is:
a. 4:1
b. 1:4
c. 1:8
2. In ammonia, the proportion of nitrogen and hydrogen, by mass, is:
a. 3:14
b. 14:3
c. 1:8
Learning Plus:
For nuclear reactions, the law of the conservation of mass is modified and is now
known as:
Law of the conservation of mass and energy
The law states that the mass and the energy are interconvertible, but the total sum of
the mass and the energy during any physical or chemical change remains constant.
In nuclear reactions, the mass of the products is slightly less than the mass of the
reactants.
Where does this lost mass go?
According to the Einstein’s theory of relativity, the mass and the energy are
interconvertible. Thus, in the nuclear reactions, some mass gets converted into energy
according to the equation, E = mc2
where, m = mass last
c = velocity of light
Fundamental Particles
Introduction:
 Everything around us is made up of tiny particles called “ATOMS”.
 Atoms are the building blocks of matter.
 Let us study about atoms in detail.
Atom:
 It is the smallest particle of an element that takes part in a chemical reaction.
 It is extremely small in size and cannot seen even under the most powerful optical
microscope.
 Hydrogen atom is the smallest atom.
 The building block of an anthill is a small grain of sand.
 We will be surprised to know that a sheet of paper may contain atleast millions of
atoms.
 Atom is the building block of all matter.
 It is the smallest particle of an element that takes part in a chemical reaction.
Atom of Element A + Atom of Element  Compound AB
Relative Sizes:
Radii (in m) Example
10 -10
An atom of hydrogen
10-9 A molecule of water
10 -8
A molecule of haemoglobin
10-4 A grain of sand
10 -2
An ant
10-1 A watermelon
 Atoms of the same elements or different elements can join together to form
molecules which in turn form most of the objects around us.
 Examples:
o Oxygen (O) + Oxygen (O)  Oxygen (O2) molecule
o Hydrogen (H) + Oxygen (O) + Hydrogen (H)  Water (H2O) molecule
 Though atoms are insignificant in size, yet they constantly affect us in whatever we
do.
 We may not be able to see them but they exist everywhere.
 Therefore, in order to understand the nature of matter around us, we need to learn
about the atom.
Symbol:
Symbol of Elements:
Symbol is a thing that represents or stands for something else, like a sketch or letter.
Symbols:
 The zebra crossing symbol represents the passage on the road that is seems to
move.
 The school symbol represents the moving traffic for slowing down in the safety of
school moving children.
 In the same way, we use specific types of symbols for identifying different chemical
elements.
 These symbols help in overcoming language problems across the world and makes
to study easier and finer.
 Symbol of an element is a short form that represents the atom of a specific element.
Types of Symbols
Dalton’s Symbols of Elements Modern Symbols of Elements

Dalton’s Symbols of Elements:
 In 1808, English Chemist John Dalton was the first scientist who started using
symbols to represent the atoms of different elements.
 These symbols were pictorial in nature.
 He used 36 different symbols for different elements.
Element Dalton’s Symbol
Hydrogen
Carbon
Oxygen
Phosphoru
s
Sulphur
Platinum
Iron
Copper
Silver
Gold
Lead
Mercury
 However, Dalton’s symbols of elements were difficult to draw and inconvenient to
use.
Modern Symbols of Elements:
 A few years later in 1814, Dalton’s symbols became outdated and those were
replaced by Swedish Chemist Johann Berzelius.
 He used alphabets from the names of the elements to represent their symbols on the
basis of certain rules.
 Symbol of an element represents:
o Name of an element
o One atom of an element
o One mole of atoms of an element
o 6.022 × 1023 atoms of an element
 For example,
Name of element is oxygen
Symbol of oxygen = O One atom of oxygen
One mole of atoms of oxygen
6.022 × 1023 atoms of oxygen
 Symbols of element helps in representing complex chemical reactions in simple way.
 Examples:
NaOH HCl NaCl H2O
Sodium hydroxide + Hydrochloric acid
Sodium chloride + Water
CaCO3
Calcium carbonate
Δ CaO
Calcium oxide + CO2
Carbon dioxide
Rules for Writing Symbols of Elements:
1. For some common elements, the first letter of English name written in capital is used
as their symbol.
Element Symbol
Hydrogen H
Boron B
Carbon C
Nitrogen N
Oxygen O
Fluorine F
Phosphorus P
Sulphur S
Iodine I
2. To avoid confusion, Berzelius used the first and second letters of the English name
to represent their symbols. Remember: The first letter of a symbol is always written
in capital letter and second letter in small letter.
Elemen
Chlorine Calcium Cadmium
t
Symbol Cl Ca Cd
Elemen
Polonium Platinum Palladium
t
Symbol Po Pt Pd
Elemen
Barium Bromine Beryllium
t
Symbol Ba Br Be
3. However, if the first two letters of the elements are same like an another element,
then the symbol consists of the first letter and the first consonant of the English
name that do not have a common.
Element Hafnium Hassium
Symbol Hf Hs
Element Magnesium Manganese
Symbol Mg Mn
4. Symbols of some elements are based on their Latin or German or Greek name.
Element Latin Name Symbol
Iron Ferrum Fe
Potassium Kalium K
Sodium Natrium Na
German
Element Symbol
Name
Silver Argentum Ag
Tin Stannum Sn
Tungsten Wolfram W
Element Greek Name Symbol
Antimony Stibium Sb
Gold Aurum Au
Mercury Hydrargyrum Hg
Questions:
Symbol of a metal element that is used for making food packaging foils:
a. Al
b. Fe
c. Mg
Atomic Mass:
 The atomic mass of an element gives us the mass of one atom of that element in
atomic mass units (u).
 One atomic mass unit is a mass unit equal to exactly one twelfth (1/12th) the mass of
one atom of carbon-12.
 It is the relative mass of an atom as compared to the mass of an atom of carbon-12
isotope taken as 12 units.
 In the nineteenth century, scientists adopted the comparative method to find the
atomic mass.
 Initially, 1/16th of the mass of an atom of naturally occurring oxygen was taken as
one unit because of the following reasons:
o Oxygen reacted with a large number of elements and formed compounds.
o This unit gave the masses of most of the elements as the whole numbers.
 In 1961, International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) accepted the
use of an isotope with the mass number 12 as the standard for measuring the atomic
masses.
 It is called C-12.
 1/12th of the mass of an atom of the C-12 isotope represents one unit of mass and is
called one atomic mass unit represented by u.
Atomic mass of some common elements:
Element Symbol Atomic mass (u)
Hydrogen H 1u
Carbon C 12 u
Nitrogen N 14 u
Oxygen O 16 u
Sodium Na 23 u
Magnesiu
Mg 24 u
m
Aluminium Al 27 u
Sulphur S 32 u
How does an atom exist?
Molecule Ion
Molecule:
 It is an electrically neutral group of two or more atoms chemically bonded together.
 It is the smallest particle of a substance, which has the properties of that substance
and can exist in a free state.
 It is capable of independent existence under ordinary conditions.
 Examples:
o Hydrogen Cyanide (HCN)
o Ammonia (NH3)
Molecules:
 If we look around us, we will find that everything around us is made of molecules.
 For example, the air we breathe contains molecules of Oxygen (O 2), Nitrogen (N2)
and Carbon dioxide (CO2), etc…
 Do you know, water we drink contain water molecules.
 Molecules are building blocks of various substances around us.
Formation of a Molecule:
 Molecules are made from a group of two or more atoms chemically bonded together.
 E.g., Oxygen (O) + Oxygen (O)  Oxygen (O2) molecule.
Properties of a Molecule:
 A molecule is electrically neutral.
 It is the smallest particle of a substance which shows all the properties of that
substance.
 It can exist in a free state.
Classification of Molecules:
 Molecules are of two types: Molecules of an Element and Molecules of a
Compound.
 Molecules of an Element are different from the Molecules of a Compound.
Molecules of an Element:
 When atoms of the same element join together, we get a molecule of that element.
 For example, Hydrogen (H2) Molecule is made of Hydrogen atoms only.
 Similarly, Ozone (O3) Molecule is made of Oxygen atoms.
 Chlorine atoms constitute Molecule of Chlorine (Cl 2).
 The number of atoms present in one molecule of a substance is known as it is
Atomicity.
 Examples:
o Helium has 1 Atom and its Atomicity = 1
o Hydrogen has 2 Atoms and its Atomicity = 2
 Therefore, depending upon the Atomicity, Molecule of an Element can be called
Monoatomic, Diatomic, Triatomic, Tetra-atomic and Polyatomic.
Monoatomic Molecule of an Element:
 Monoatomic molecule of an element contains only one atom of the same element.
 Examples: Helium (He), Neon (Ne), Argon (Ar).
Diatomic Molecule of an Element:
 Diatomic Molecule of an element contains two atoms of the same element.
 Examples: Hydrogen (H2), Oxygen (O2).
Triatomic Molecule of an Element:
 Triatomic Molecule of an element contains three atoms of the same element.
 Example: Ozone (O3).
Tetra-atomic Molecule of an Element:
 Tetra-atomic Molecule of an element contains four atoms of the same element.
 Example: Phosphorus (P4).
Polyatomic Molecule of an Element:
 Polyatomic Molecule of an element contains more than four atoms of the same
element.
 Example: Sulphur (S8).
 Molecules of same element such as Carbon are varied by size and contain a large
number of atoms linked together such as Graphite and Diamond.
 Buckminster Fullerene is an extremely stable oval-shaped carbon molecule.
 It contains about 60 carbon atoms linked together and is represented as C60.
Molecules of a Compound:
 When two or more atoms of different elements chemically combine together in a
definite proportion by mass, they form a compound.
 This means that, Compounds always exist as molecules, not as separate atoms.
 For example, Hydrogen (H2) and Oxygen (O) are different elements.
 When they react together and form Water (H2O).
 And Water is a compound of oxygen and hydrogen atoms.
 Depending upon the Atomicity, Molecules of a Compound can be called Diatomic,
Triatomic, Tetra-atomic and Polyatomic.
Diatomic Molecule of a Compound:
 Diatomic Molecules contain two atoms.
 Examples: Hydrogen Chloride (HCl), Carbon monoxide (CO).
Triatomic Molecule of a Compound:
 Triatomic Molecules contain three atoms.
 Examples: Water (H2O), Carbon dioxide (CO2).
Tetra-atomic Molecule of a Compound:
 Tetra-atomic Molecules contain four atoms.
 Examples: Ammonia (NH3), Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2).
Polyatomic Molecule of a Compound:
 Polyatomic Molecules contain more than four atoms.
 Examples: Methane (CH4), Carbon tetrachloride (CCl4).
Molecule of an Element Molecule of a Compound
Monoatomic Ne
Diatomic O2 Diatomic HCl
Triatomic O3 Triatomic CO2
Tetra-atomic P4 Tetra-atomic H2O2
Polyatomic S8 Polyatomic CH4
Atoms and Molecules:
 Everything around us is made of tiny particles called atoms.
 Atoms are far too small to be seen with naked eyes, but of you could see them
Aluminium would contain only Aluminium atoms.
 This is because it is an element.
 All atoms of an element are same.
 Each element is represented by a unique chemical symbol.
 These symbols are one or two letters long.
 And are derived from English or Latin or Greek or German name of that element.
 Every chemical symbols start with a capital letter and the second letter is written in
lower case; therefore, the symbol of Aluminium is Al.
 Charcoal contains Carbon atoms.
 Carbon is an element.
 The chemical symbol of Carbon is C.
 Gold is another element.
 Its chemical symbol is Au which is derived from its Latin name Aurum.
 There are over hundred different elements and the each of them has its unique
chemical symbol.
 Atoms can join together to form either Molecule of Element or Molecule of a
Compound.
 When atoms of same element combined, they form Molecule of Element.
 For example, each oxygen molecule is formed when two oxygen atoms join together.
 Similarly, two atoms of Nitrogen join together to form Nitrogen molecule.
 The chemical formula of Oxygen and Nitrogen are O 2 and N2 respectively.
 So, we can say that the Oxygen molecule contains two Oxygen atoms.
 Chlorine is the main constituent of the domestic bleach.
 Each Chlorine molecule contains two Chlorine atoms.
 Chemical formula of Chlorine is Cl2.
 Atoms of different elements can also join together to form Molecule of a Compound.
 For example, Hydrogen and Oxygen are two different elements.
 Two atoms of Hydrogen and one atom of Oxygen to form a molecule of Water which
is a compound.
 Other common examples of Compound include Table salt, Sugar, Carbon dioxide,
etc…
 There are countless different ways for the elements to join together and millions of
compounds are known.
Questions:
1. Name the element used as a standard for atomic mass scale:
a. Carbon
b. Aluminium
c. Hydrogen
2. One of the following compounds has an atomicity of ‘two’. This
compound is:
a. Hydrogen chloride
b. Ammonia
c. Water
Ion:
 It is a positively or negatively charged species.
 Examples:
o Na+
o Cl-
o OH-
o Pb2+
Ion
Cation
Anions
s
Cation:
 It is positively charged ion.
 Examples:
o Na+
o Pb2+
 It is formed by the loss of one or more electrons by an atom.
 Ions of all the metallic elements are cations, as metals only lose electrons.
Anion:
 It is a negatively charged ion.
 Examples:
o Cl-
o OH-
 It is formed by the gain of one or more electrons by an atom.
 Ions of all the non-metallic elements are anions, as non-metals only gain electrons.
Valency:
 It is the combining capacity of an element.
 The units of positive or negative charge present on the ion.
Monovalent cations:
Name of Cation Symbol
Potassium K1+
Mercury (I) [Mercurous] Hg1+
Copper (I) [Cuprous] Cu1+
Ammonium NH41+
Sodium Na1+
Silver Ag1+
Hydrogen H1+
Divalent cations:
Barium Ba2+
Manganese (I)
Mn2+
[Mangannous]
Calcium Ca2+
Iron (II) [Ferrous] Fe2+
Magnesium Mg2+
Tin (II) [Stannous] Sn2+
Zinc Zn2+
Mercury (II) [Mercuric] Hg2+
Nickel Ni2+
Copper (II) [Cupric] Cu2+
Cobalt Co2+
Lead (II) [Plumbum] Pb2+
Trivalent cations:
Aluminium Al3+
Iron (III) [Ferric] Fe3+
Chromium Cr3+
Gold (III) [Auric] Au3+
Arsenic As3+
Antimony Sb3+
Monovalent anions:
Name of Anion Symbol
Bromide Br1-
Hydroxide OH1-
Fluoride F1-
Chloride Cl1-
Bicarbonate HCO31-
Iodide I1-
Nitrate NO31-
Bisulphate HSO41-
Bisulphite HSO31-
Hypochlorite ClO1-
Chlorate ClO31-
Permanganate MnO41-
Aluminate AlO21-
Nitrite NO21-
Divalent anions:
Carbonate CO32-
Zincate ZnO22-
Oxide O2-
Sulphide S2-
Sulphite SO32-
Sulphate SO42-
Thiosulphate S2O32-
Chromate CrO42-
Dichromate Cr2O72-
Trivalent anions:
Phosphate PO43-
Nitride N3-
Ferricyanide Fe(CN)63-
Chemical Formula:
 It represents the actual number of atoms of different elements present in one
molecule of the compound.
 Examples:
o (NH4)2SO4
o H2SO4
o AlCl3
o HNO3
Writing Chemical Formulae:
1. Identify the constituent elements of the compound.
Positive ion Negative ion
2. Write their symbols.
Ax+ By-
3. Cross over the valencies of the combining atoms.
A B
y- x+
4. Write them as subscript.

Ay- Bx+
5. Combine the two elements.
Ay-Bx+
6. Remove their symbols, ‘one’ and same valencies form the subscript to get the
formula of compound.
AyBx
Example:
Mercurous Oxide:
Mercurous Oxide
Hg1+ O2-
Hg O
2- 1+

Hg2- O1+
Hg2-O1+
Hg2O
Hydrogen Sulphide:
Hydrogen Sulphide
H1+ S2-
H S
2- 1+

H2- S1+
H2-S1+
H2S
Magnesium Oxide:
Magnesium Oxide
Mg2+ O2-
Mg S
2- 2+

Mg2- O2+
Mg2-O2+
MgO
Aluminium Chloride:
Aluminium Chloride
Al3+ Cl1-
Al Cl
1- 3+

Al1- Cl3+
Al1-Cl3+
AlCl3
Zinc Hydroxide:
Zinc Hydroxide
Zn2+ OH1-
Zn OH
1- 2+

Zn1- (OH)2+
Zn1-(OH)2+
Zn(OH)2
Calcium Phosphate:
Calcium Phosphate
Ca2+ PO43-
Ca PO4
3- 2+

Ca3- (PO4)2+
Ca3-(PO4)2+
Ca3(PO4)2
Question:
Write the formula of the compound Potassium Sulphide.
Potassium Sulphide
K1+ S2-
K S
2- 1+

K2- S1+
K2-S1+
K2S
Questions:
1. The formula of a compound is X3Y. The valency of the elements X and Y will be:
a. 3 and 1
b. 1 and 3
c. 2 and 3
2. The formula of the sulphate of an element X is X 2(SO4)3. The formula of the nitride of
the element X will be:
a. X2N3
b. XN2
c. XN
John Dalton:
 John Dalton was an English chemist.
 Dalton used his own symbols to visually represent the atomic structure of
compounds.
 Dalton’s symbols represented one atom of an element and the formula of a
compound was made up of the symbols of its elements, it showed how many of
these atoms were present in the molecule.
Jons Jacob Berzelius:
 Jons Jacob Berzelius was a Swedish chemist.
 He was the first to bring chemical notation system in use with symbols that denoted
elements and numbers denoted proportions.
 He is known Sweden as “The Father of Swedish Chemistry”.
 Berzelius Day is celebrated on 20th August in his honour.
Mole Concept
Introduction:
 Atom is the smallest particles of the element that cannot exist in free state.
 For counting common objects we use:
o A pair of gloves = 2 items
o A dozen of banana = 12 items
o A deck of cards = 52 cards
 However, one aluminium can consists of billions of aluminium atoms.
 So, we need a convenient counting unit to express the number of particles in a
substance.
 Mole, fulfils this requirement.
Atomic Mass:
It is the relative mass of atoms as compared with the mass of an atom of carbon-12
isotope taken as 12 units.
Example:
1 atomic mass unit = 1.066056 × 10-24 g
Mass of hydrogen atom = 1.6736 × 10-24 g
1.066056× 10−24
Mass of hydrogen atom in amu =
1.6736× 10−24
= 1.0078
= 1.008 amu
Atomic mass of hydrogen = 1.008 amu
Gram Atomic Mass:

 The quantity of an element whose mass in grams is numerically equal to the atomic
mass of that element is called the gram atomic mass.
 Example:
Gram atomic mass of hydrogen = 1.008 g
Molecular Mass:
 Molecules:
o NH3
o FeSO4
o HNO3
o Na2CO3
o PCl3
o H2SO4
o CuSO4
o NaCl
 Every chemical compound has its unique molecular formula.
 With the help of a molecular formula, one can determine the molecular mass of a
compound.
 Molecular formula is a unique characteristic of a compound.
 Example: NH3 = 17 u
 Molecular mass is the sum of the atomic masses of all the atoms in a molecule of the
substance. It is expressed in the atomic mass units (u).
Example:
CH4:
Atomic mass of carbon = 12 u
Atomic mass of hydrogen = 1 u
Molecular mass of methane (CH4) = 1 × atomic mass of carbon + 4 × atomic mass of
hydrogen
Molecular mass of methane (CH4) = 1 × 12 + 4 × 1
Molecular mass of methane (CH4) = 16 u
Question:
Calculate the molecular mass of nitric acid.
Molecular formula of nitric acid is HNO3
Atomic mass of hydrogen = 1u
Atomic mass of nitrogen = 14 u
Atomic mass of oxygen = 16 u
Molecular mass of nitric acid (HNO3) = 1 × atomic mass of hydrogen + 1 × atomic mass of
nitrogen + 3 × atomic mass of oxygen
Molecular mass of (HNO3) = 1 × 1 + 1 × 14 + 3 × 16
Molecular mass of (HNO3) = 1 + 14 + 48
Molecular mass of nitric acid (HNO3) = 63 u
Gram Molecular Mass:

 It is the quantity of a substance whose mass in gram is numerically equal to the
molecular mass of the given substance.
 Example:
Gram molecular mass of water = 18.016 g
Formula Unit Mass:
It is the sum of the atomic masses of all the atoms present in one formula unit of all
the compound.
Example:
H2SO4:
Atomic mass of hydrogen = 1u
Atomic mass of sulphur = 32 u
Formula unit mass of Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) = 2 × atomic mass of hydrogen + 1 × atomic
mass of sulphur + 4 × atomic mass of oxygen
Molecular mass of sulphuric acid (H2SO4) = 2 × 1 + 1 × 32 + 4 × 16
Molecular mass of sulphuric acid (H2SO4) = 2 + 32 + 64
= 98
Formula mass unit of H2SO4 = 98 u
Question:
Calculate the formula unit mass of zinc oxide.
Molecular formula of nitric zinc oxide is ZNO
Atomic mass of zinc = 65u
Formula mass unit of zinc oxide (ZNO) = 1 × atomic mass of zinc + 1 × atomic mass of
oxygen
Formula mass unit of zinc oxide (ZNO) = 1 × 65 + 1 × 16
Formula mass unit of zinc oxide (ZNO) = 81 u
Questions:
1. The molecular mass of NO2 is:
a. 50 u
b. 56 u
c. 46 u
2. The formula unit mass of CaCl2 is:
a. 111 u
b. 211 u
c. 100 u
Mole:
 The word “mole” was introduced around 1896 by Wilhelm Ostwald who derived the
term from the Latin word moles meaning a ‘heap’ or ‘pile’.
 The unit mole was accepted in 1967 to provide a simple way of reporting a large
number– the massive heap of atoms and molecules in a sample.
 In the SI system, a mole is the base quantity for the amount of substance.
 ‘One mole is the amount of a substance that contains as many particles or entities as
there are atoms in exactly 12 g of carbon-12 isotope’.
12
12 g /mol C
1 mole = −23 12
1.992648× 10 g ¿ C atom
1 mole = 6.023 × 10-23 g/ 12C atom/mol
How big is a mole?
 A mole is a collection of
6.23 ×1023 particles,
i.e.,
602,000,000,000,000,000,000,000.
 These particles may be atoms, molecules, ions or electrons.
 A mole is a large number because the atoms, molecules and formula units are quite
small.
 In order to have the useful masses in lab, we have to use the moles of those
substances that can be converted into grams.
Mole:
 We can easily count the number of balloons.
 We can count the number of particles of gas present inside each balloon by using
Mole concept.
 This balloon is filled with Oxygen and this one with nitrogen.
 Mole Concept was given by Italian scientist Amedeo Avogadro which states that
“Equal volumes of gases at the same temperature and pressure contain equal
number of molecules”.
 Let’s find out that 1 mole of which of the following gases – Hydrogen (H 2), Ammonia
(NH3) and Carbon dioxide (CO2) has more number of molecules.
 It is observed that 1 mole of all of these gases have 6.022 × 10 23 molecules.
 Let’s find out that 1 mole of which of the following gases – Hydrogen (H 2), Ammonia
(NH3) and Carbon dioxide (CO2) occupies more volume.
 Since the volume of substance changes with temperature and pressure we measure
the volume of all the gases at Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP) that is 273
K temperature and 1 atmospheric pressure.
 First, we will measure the volume of one mole of Hydrogen gas.
 You will observe that it occupies 22.4 L at STP.
 When we measure the volume of one mole of Ammonia gas we observe that it
occupies 22.4 L at STP.
 Similarly, when we measure the volume of one mole of Carbon dioxide at STP, it
also occupies 22.4 L.
 Let’s find out the weight of 1 mole of each of the following gases and find if their
weights are also identical like their volumes and number of particles – Hydrogen
(H2), Ammonia (NH3) and Carbon dioxide (CO2). (Excluding the flask weight)
 First, we will find out the weight of one mole of hydrogen gas.
 It weighs 02.00 g.
 When we weigh one mole of Ammonia, it weighs 17.00 g.
 When we weigh one mole of Carbon dioxide, it weighs 44.00 g.
 The following equation show one mole of substance is related to the number of
molecules, volume of substance and mass of a substance:
1 mole = 6.022 × 1023 molecules/atoms/ions
= 22.4 L at STP
= At.Wt./M.Wt. in grams
Molar Mass:
 It is the mass of one mole of a substance in grams.
 Example:
Molar mass of sodium chloride (NaCl):
= Mass of sodium + Mass of chlorine
= 23 g + 35.5 g
= 58.5 g
Question:
1. Calculate the number of moles in 40 g of CaCO 3.
Formula mass of CaCO3 = 40 + 12 + (16 × 3)
Gram formula mass of CaCO3 = 100 g
∴ Gram formula mass of CaCO3 = 1 mole
∵ 100 g CaCO3 = 1 mole
1
∴ 40 g CaCO3 = × 40
100
The number of moles in 40 g of CaCO3 are 0.4 moles.
2. Calculate the weight in grams for 0.5 moles of CO 2.
Formula mass of CO2 = 12 + (16 × 2)
Gram formula mass of CO2 = 44 g
∴ Gram formula mass of CO2 = 1 mole
∵ 1 mole = 44 g CO2
∴ 0.5 moles = 0.5 × 44
= 22 g
To be Remembered:
Mass of one mole of atoms = Gram atomic mass of the element
Gram molecular mass of the

Mass of one mole of molecules =
substance
Mass of one mole of a formula unit in case of an Gram formula mass of the ionic
=
ionic compound compound
 No. of moles = n
 Given mass = m
 Molar mass = M
 Given number of particles = N
 Avogadro number of particles = N0
m N
 n= =N
M 0
Avogadro’s Number:
 The number of particles in one mole of a substance (element or compound) is known
as the Avogadro’s number.
 It was found by Amedeo Avogadro.
 It is represented as N0 (6.023 × 1023).
Questions:
1. The number of water molecules present in a drop of water weighing
0.018 g is:
a. 6.023 × 1023
b. 6.023 × 1020
c. 6.023 × 1025
2. One mole of H2O corresponds to the following:
a. 18 g
b. 1 g
c. 6.02 × 1023 atoms of hydrogen and 6.02 × 1023 atoms of oxygen
Other Units of Mole:
Pound-mole:
It is the number of entities in 12 lb of 12C. One lb-mol is equal to 453.59237 mol. It is
written as lb-mol or lbmol.
Kilogram-mole:
It is the number of entities in 12 kg of 12C and is often referred to as gram-mole. It is
written as g-mol.
The Mole Day:
 October 23 is called the Mole Day.
 The day is celebrated in the honour of the unit by the chemists in North America.
 The date has been derived from the Avogadro’s number, which is approximately
6.023 × 1023. It officially starts at 6:02 AM and ends at 6:02 PM.
Chapter-4 Structure of the Atom
Atomic Models
Introduction:
 Everything around us is made up of tiny particles called “ATOMS”.
 Atoms are the building blocks of matter.
 What is the structure of an atom?
 Is an atom divisible?
 Answer to these questions has been a major challenge for the scientists, since the
19th century.
 Later on different scientists explained the structure of atom with the help of different
models.
 Before studying about them let us perform an activity to understand the nature of
particles in matter.
Activity:
Materials required:
 Comb
 Small pieces of paper
 Scalp hair (dry)
Let us proceed…
Procedure:
 Comb your dry hair.
 Bring the comb quickly close near the near the small pieces of paper.
Observation:
The comb will attract small pieces of paper and they will stick to the comb.
Conclusion:
 While combing dry hair, a frictional force occurs between the hair and comb. This
frictional force resists the motion between the two objects that are in contact with
each other. Due to this force, the hair and the comb both get charged.
 The hair acquires a positive charge and the comb gets negatively charged. When
this comb is brought close to the small pieces of paper, it gets stuck to the comb
because of the presence of charges on the comb.
 So, you can say that on rubbing the two objects together they become electrically
charged.
 However, the question arises, where did these charge come from?
 The question can be answered by understanding the concept that an atom is
divisible and consists of charged particles.
Discovery of Subatomic Particles:
 Protons (p+) have positive charge.
 Neutrons (n0) be with protons.
 Electrons (e-) are so small.
 e- revolves around p+ and n0.
 Since, e- is negatively charged; it is attracted to p+.
Subatomic Particles:
So, we conclude that:
 Proton is positively charged.
 Electron is negatively charged.
 Neutron is neutral.
 An electron is very small particle as compared to the proton and neutron.
Subatomic particles
Proton (p+) Neutron (n0) Electron (e-1)

 Subatomic particles are too small to be seen.
Discovery of Subatomic Particles:
 In the year 1803, Dalton proposed that all matter in the world is made of tiny particles
called atoms.
 Dalton believed atom was a solid sphere and the smallest particle in the universe.
 About hundred years later, scientists discovered atoms are made of even smaller
particles.
 In 1900, J.J. Thomson, during his study of gases observed a beam of particles
moving from cathode to anode in the discharge tube.
 Thomson realised that atoms has even smaller particles inside it, which carried
negative charge.
 He called the beam as cathode rays and its constitutional particle is Electron.
 According to Thomson, electron has negligible mass.
 Even before discovery of electron, Eugen Goldstein, in 1886 identified a kind of
radiation in a gas discharge tube.
 He named the positively charged radiations as Canal rays.
 Canal rays ultimately lead to the discovery of another subatomic particle which was
Proton.
 Proton had charge equal in magnitude of electron but opposite to it.
 The mass of proton was identified as approximately two thousand times as that of
the electron.
Mass of proton ≃ 1836.15 times of electron
 After the discovery of two subatomic particles, the next challenge for the scientists
was to assign them the position in the atom.
 J.J. Thomson was the first to propose the model for the structure of the atom
followed by Rutherford and Bohr.
 Ernst Rutherford during his experiment discovered the presence of the positive
centre in an atom which was named as the nucleus.
 Somehow, the scientists were not convinced, that protons are not only the particle in
the nucleus.
 In 1932, J. Chadwick during his experiments discovered another subatomic particle
with no charge and mass nearly equal to that of a proton.
 The particle was termed as Neutron.
Subatomic Particles
Mass Charge Charge in common
Particle Symbol
Gram (g) Coulomb (C) Units
Electron e- 9.1 × 10-28 -1.6 × 10-19 -1
Proton p +
1.67 × 10 -24
+1.6 × 10 -19
+1
Neutron n0 1.67 × 10-24 0 0
Mass of Proton = Mass of Neutron = 1836.15 × Electron
After the discovery of the subatomic particles, the next challenge for the scientists was to
assign them a position in the atom.
Dalton’s Atomic Model:

 In 09.07.1908, English Chemist, Physicist and Meteorologist Sir John Dalton FRS
(06.09.1766 in Eaglesfield, England – 27.07.1844 [77 age] in Manchester, England)
gave the following atomic model:
Atomic Theory:
 All matter is made up of atoms.
 Atoms of an element are identical.
 Each element has different atoms.
 Atoms can engage in chemical reactions.
 Atoms can neither be created nor be destroyed.
 Atoms are indivisible.
Limitations:
 Atom consists of subatomic particles but Dalton said that atoms are indivisible and
they can neither be created nor be destroyed.
 Discovery of isotopes revealed that the atoms of the same element possess different
weights.
Goldstein’s Atomic Model:
 In 28.05.1886, German Physicist Eugen Goldstein (05.09.1850 in Gleiwitz, German
Confederation – 25.12.1930 [80 age] in Berlin, Weimar Republic) gave the following
atomic model:
Proton:
 Proton – It is a positively charged subatomic particle, which is represented by ‘p +’.
 In 1886, a German scientist, E. Goldstein observed a stream of new stream of new
radiations in a gas discharge and named it the canal rays.
 This beam is also called the anode rays and its constitutional particle is known as the
proton.
 It carries one unit of positive charge.
 It is 1836.15 times heavier than an electron.
 It is represented by p+.
Discovery of Proton using Anode Ray Tube:
 From the cathode ray experiment, it was discovered that the electrons are the basic
constituents of all the atoms.
 We all know that an atom is electrically neutral; therefore it should have some
positively charged particles to neutralise the negative charge of the electrons.
 In 1886, Goldstein experimentally proved the existence of positive charge along with
the negative charge in the matter.
 He performed discharge tube experiment and discovered that in addition to cathode
rays, a new kind of rays was also found behind the cathode.
 He conducted the discharge tube experiment by passing the electricity at high
voltage through a gas at low pressure.
 In a discharge tube fitted with a perforated cathode.
 These perforations are to allow the positive rays to pass through them.
 A discharge tube is a long glass tube contains electrodes at each end.
 Cathode is negatively charged electrode and anode is a positively charged
electrode.
 The electrodes are connected to a power source.
 The tube behind the perforated cathode is coated with Phosphorescence material
like Zinc sulphide, so that, the invisibly emitted radiation can produce visible light.
 The electrical discharge through the hydrogen gases takes place only when the
pressure inside the tube is very low and the potential difference between the
electrodes (the voltage) in very high.
 When the hydrogen gas atoms in the discharge tube are at the atmospheric
pressure, they collide with the electrons and they may prevent them from reaching
the anode as no electrons reach the anode; current flows through the discharge
tube.
 When the hydrogen gas atoms are at very low pressure i.e., 0.001 mm, a few
hydrogen gas atoms are present in the discharge tube, hence there is no hindrance
in the movement of the electrons and therefore the hydrogen gas conducts
electricity.
 When a high voltage i.e., 10000 volts is supplied between the electrodes apart from
the usual cathode rays emerging from the perforations, we will see come rays are
coming from the anode as well.
 These rays after passing through the perforated cathode, strike the zinc sulphite
coating and a faint red glow is observed on the glass wall.
 These rays are called as the Anode Rays because they originate from the anode.
 These rays are also called as the Canal Rays because they pass through the canals
i.e., the holes in the cathode.
 These rays travel in the direction opposite to that of the cathode rays.
 Wilhelm Wien in 1898 identified the anode rays as Positive rays by supplying electric
field that the anode rays deflected towards positive plate.
Origin of Anode Rays:

 We know that the cathode rays, consists of a stream of electrons.
 When a high voltage is supplied, these electrons move towards the anode with a
very high speed.
 When these fast moving electrons strike the gaseous electrons, they knock of the
electrons.
 This results in the formation of the positively charged ions.
 These positively charged ions move towards the perforated cathode and constitute
the beam of the anode rays coming through the holes of the cathode.
Properties of Anode Rays:
 The Anode rays travel in straight line:
o When an object is placed in the path of anode rays, a sharp shadow is
produced on the glass wall.
 The Anode rays are made up of material particles:
o If a light paddle wheel is placed in the path of anode rays, the wheel begins to
rotate.
 The Anode rays carry positive charge:
o When an electric field is supplied, the anode rays are deflected towards the
negative of the electric field.
o This shows that the charged particles in the anode rays carry positive charge
and therefore the anode rays are also called as positive rays.
o When a magnetic is supplied by bringing the south pole of a magnet near the
discharge tube, the anode rays are deflected towards the magnet.
o On reversing the magnet, we observe that the rays are deflected in the
opposite direction.
o It shows that the anode rays carry positive charge.
 The properties of Anode rays depend upon the nature of gas taken in the discharge
tube.
 The mass of the particles that constitutes the Anode rays is different for different
gases taken in the discharge tube.
 Charge to mass ratio of the particles in the anode rays depends upon the nature of
the gas taken in the discharge tube.
Characteristics of Proton:
 Charge of proton = 1.602 × 10-19 coulombs
 Charge of proton in common = +1 unit
 Mass of proton = 1.672 × 10-24 g
 Charge to mass (e/m) ratio = 9.58 × 107 C/kg
Proton:
 When hydrogen gas is taken in the discharge tube, lightest positive ions called
protons are produced.
 A proton is produced when one electron is removed from the Hydrogen atom and it
is about 1836.15 times massive than an electron.
 The positively charged material particles constituting the anode rays are called
Protons.
 So, we can conclude that protons are the basic constituents of all the atoms.
Limitations:
 Doesn’t explain about electricity i.e., flow of electrons.
 Doesn’t explain about atoms neutrality i.e., presence of protons.
Thomson’s Atomic Model:
 In 21.09.1897, British Physicist and Nobel Laureate in Physics Sir Joseph John
Thomson OM PRS (18.12.1856 in Cheetham Hill, England – 30.08.1940 [83 age] in
Cambridge, England) gave the following atomic model:
 In 1897, the English scientist J.J. Thomson provided the first hint that an atom is
made of even smaller particles.
 This model is also known as the watermelon or the plum pudding model as the
electrons is the sphere of the positive charge were just like dry fruits in a spherical
Christmas pudding.
 An atom consists of a positively charged sphere and the electrons are embedded in
it.
 Atoms are electrically neutral because of the presence of negative and positive
charges in equal magnitude.
Postulates:
 An atom consists of a positively charged sphere and the electrons are embedded in
it.
 The negative and positive charges are equal in magnitude so the atom as a whole is
electrically neutral.
 The positively charged sphere is approximately 10 -10 m in diameter.
Thomson’s model of an atom:
 Atom is the building block of an atom.
 Scientists have been investigating atoms in fifth century.
 Notable scientists who have contributed to atomic theory include Democritus, John
Dalton, J.J. Thomson and Ernest Rutherford.
 In 1808, John Dalton proposed that atom cannot be further divided.
 But this theory only stand true if there are no other subatomic particles.
 In 1897, Joseph John Thomson well-known British Physicist discovered the
existence of electron (a negatively charged particle of an atom).
 This discovery dismissed Dalton’s theory of non-existence of subatomic particles.
 On the basis of his discovery Thomson gave an atomic model in 1904 to explain the
structure of an atom known as Thomson Model of Atom.
 Model of atom proposed by Thomson is similar to the plum pudding.
 According to the model, Electrons are arranged in the positive sphere just like Plum
in the plum pudding.
 Due to this resemblance to the pudding, Thomson’s model is often known as Plum
pudding model.
 Thomson’s model is often compared to watermelon.
 According to this theory, electrons are arranged in atom just like the seeds
embedded in the watermelon.
 The theory was rejected by Thomson’s own student Ernst Rutherford in 1909 with
the discovery of positive charge is concentrated in the nucleus.
 Nevertheless, J.J. Thomson continued his work and was awarded Nobel prize in
Physics in 1906 for the discovery of the electron and his work on conductivity in
gases.
Electron:
 Electron – It is a negatively charged sub-atomic particle represented by ‘e -’ and has
negligible mass.
 In the year 1900, J.J. Thomson, during his study of gases, observed a beam of
particles moving from cathode to anode in the discharge tube.
 This beam is called the cathode rays and its constitutional particle is known as the
electron.
 It carries one unit of negative charge.
 It has negligible mass.
 It is represented by e-1.
Discovery of Electron using Cathode Ray Tube:
 John Dalton (1766-1844) proposed that atom is made up of small indivisible particles
called Atoms.
 Better researches done by various scientists like J.J. Thomson (1856-1940), Ernest
Rutherford (1871-1937), Neils Bohr (1885-1962) established that atom is not the
smallest indivisible particle and is made up of still smaller particles called
Fundamental particles.
 There are three Fundamental Particles:
o Electron (e-)
o Proton (p+)
o Neutron (n0)
 Let’s go through the events that led to the discovery of electron.
 William Crookes studied the conduction of electricity through gases at low pressure
and high voltages in partially evacuated tubes called cathode ray discharge tubes or
Crookes tubes and discovered Cathode rays.
 J.J. Thomson discovered that the cathode ray consists of negatively charged
particles called electrons.
Setup of Experiment:
 A discharge tube is a long glass tube containing two thin pieces of metals called
electrodes sealed at its two ends.
 Cathode is negatively charged electrode and Anode is positively charged electrode.
 The discharge tube is connected to a Power Source.
 The tube behind the Anode is coated with Phosphorescence material like Zinc
sulphide.
 There is a side tube which can be connected to a Vacuum Pump so that experiments
can be performed at low pressure.
 The electrical discharge through gases takes place only when the pressure inside
the tube is very low and potential different between the electrodes is high (high
voltage).
 When a high voltage supplied between the electrodes, different results are observed
at different pressures.
1) Discharge Tube Containing Gas at 760 mm of atmospheric pressure:
At 760 mm of mercury and high voltage of 10000 volts, no current flows between
electrodes, because gases are poor conductors of electricity.
2) Discharge Tube Containing Gas at 1 mm of atmospheric pressure:
 On decreasing the pressure with the help of vaccum pump to about 1 mm the
mercury gas becomes conducting and a coloured green glow is observed.

 Colour of the light depends on the nature of the gas taken in the discharge tube.
3) Discharge Tube Containing Gas at 10-4 Atmospheric Pressure:
 When pressure is further reduced to about 0.001 mm of mercury, we can see that
the glow between the electrodes disappears, but the gas continues to conduct the
electricity.
 This flow of current from cathode to anode can be checked by using Perforated
Anode.
 When these rays after passing through Anode, strike the Zinc Sulphide coating, a
greenish glow is observed in the glass wall.
 These rays are called as cathode rays because they originate from Cathode.
 Since, cathode rays are produced in a discharge tube; the discharge tube is referred
as Cathode Ray Tube.
Origin of Cathode Rays:
 The gas in the discharge tube is made up of atoms.
 All atoms contain electrons.
 When high voltage is applied, the electrical energy knocks out some of the electrons
from the atoms.
 These electrons constitute the cathode rays.
Properties of Cathode Rays:
 The Cathode Rays Travel in Straight Line:
o When an object is placed in the path of cathode rays, a sharp shadow is
produced on the glass wall.
 The Cathode Rays are Made up of Material Particles:
o Cathode rays travel with a high speed almost equal to the speed of the light
and possess kinetic energy.
o If a light paddle wheel is placed in the path of the rays, the wheel begins to
rotate.
 The Cathode Rays Produce Heating Effect:
o When cathode rays strike a metal foil, it becomes hot.
 The Cathode Rays Carry Negative Charge.
o When an electric field is supplied, the cathode rays are deflected towards the
positive plate of the electric field.
o This shows that the charged particles in the cathode rays carry negative
charge.
o Similarly, when a magnetic field is supplied, the cathode rays are deflected
towards the north pole of magnet since North Pole contains positive charge
and South Pole contains negative charge.
o On reversing the possession of magnet, we will see that the rays will be
deflected in the opposite direction, showing that the cathode rays carry
negative charge.
 The Cathode Rays Produce Green Fluorescence on the Glass Walls of the
Discharge Tube:
o Production of green glow on the wall of discharge tube by cathode rays.
 The Cathode Rays Penetrate Through Thin Sheets of Metals:
o Penetration of cathode rays through metal sheet.
 The Cathode Rays Affect The Photographic Plates:
o The cathode rays produce X-rays when they strike against hard metals such
as tungsten, copper, etc…
 Cathode rays produce heating effect.
 Cathode rays ionize the gas through which they pass.
 The charge to mass ratio (e/m) for the particles in the cathode is independent of the
nature of the gas taken.
Characteristics of Electron:
 Charge of electron = -1.602 × 10-19 coulombs
 Charge of electron in common = -1 unit
 Mass of electron = 9.11 × 10-28 g (negligibly small)
 Charge to mass (e/m) ratio = 1.76 × 1011 C/kg or 1.76 × 108 C/g
Electron:
 The negatively charged material particles constituting the cathode rays are called
electrons.
 Electron was the first elementary particle that was discovered.
 The characteristics of electrons do not depend upon the material of electrodes and
the nature of the gas present in the cathode ray tube.
 So, we can conclude that electrons are the basic constituent of all the atoms.
Limitations:
 Thomson could not explain the results of other scientists such as there is no nucleus
in the atomic model proposed by Rutherford.
 His model could not explain the stability of atom.
Rutherford’s Atomic Model:
 In 13.07.1905, British-New Zealand Physicist The Right Honourable The Lord Ernest
Rutherford of Nelson OM PRS HonFRSE (30.08.1871 in Brightwater, Colony of New
Zealand – 19.10.1937 [66 age] in Cambridge, England) gave the following atomic
model:
 Rutherford carried out many experiments to find the position of the electrons in an
atom.
 The gold foil was about 1000 atoms thick.
 He selected a gold foil because he wanted as thin a layer as possible.
 He made fast moving ∝-particles (doubly charged and mass of 4 u) to fall on a thin
gold foil.
 A detector was arranged to surround the sample completed except for a small hole
for the entry of particles.
We have to keep in mind that an atom is like a watermelon, having a positively charged
sphere where the electrons are placed randomly.
Obviously, the ∝-particles would be deflected slightly by the subatomic particles present
in the gold atoms.
Result obtained:
 Most of the fast moving ∝-particles, passed straight through the gold foil.
 Some were reflected by the foil towards the small angles.
 A few were scattered at large angles.
 One out of every 12,000 particles appeared to rebound.
If Thomson’s model was correct, then all the ∝-particles should have passed without
changing their path.
What could be the reason for the reflected and rebounded particles?
Barbed-wire fence:
If you throw stones from a distance at a fence, most of the stones may not hit the
fence and pass through it because there are large gaps between the wires.
Conclusions:
 Rutherford concluded that atoms have large empty spaces (because most of the
particles passed straight through the atoms present in the gold foil).
 As some of the ∝-particles deflected through small and large angles, so there must
be a centre of the positive charge in the atom, which repelled the positively charged
∝-particles and deflected them from the original path.
 Very few ∝-particles rebounded on hitting the gold foil. This shows that the central
part of the atom is very dense and hard. It does not allow the ∝-particles to pass
through it.
On the basis of these conclusions drawn from this experiment, Rutherford put forward
the nuclear model of atom, which states the following:
 There is a positively charged centre in the atom, which is called the nucleus. Almost
the whole mass of an atom resides in the nucleus.
 Nucleus – It constitutes protons and neutrons. The whole mass of an atom resides
in it.
 The electrons revolve around the nucleus in well-defined orbits.
 The size of a nucleus is very small as compared to the size of an atom.
 Structure of atom is like a fidget spinner.
Rutherford’s Experiment:
 In 1910, a physicist from New Zealand, ERNST RUTHERFORD performed an
experiment known as RUTHERFORD’S GOLD FOIL EXPIREMENT.
 Ernest Rutherford performed a historic Alpha particle scattering experiment to
understand the arrangement of the constituent particles in an atom.
Rutherford’s Experiment:
 This experiment involved to study of scattering of Alpha particles through a thin gold
foil.
 In this experiment, a sample of Alpha particle emitting substance was enclosed in a
Lead block.
 The lead block is placed behind a lead screen that had a small hole in it so that a
narrow beam of Alpha particle could be produced.
 This beam was directed towards a thin gold foil.
 The thin gold foil was surrounded by a movable fluorescent zinc sulphide (ZnS)
screen which produced centralization or visible flash of light when strike.
Rutherford’s Atomic Model:
Observations of the experiment:

 Most of the moving alpha particles passed through the gold foil.
 A few alpha particles deflected through small angles and a few deflected through
large angles.
 A very few particles completely rebounded on hitting the gold boil.
Conclusions:
 The nucleus of an atom is positively charged and is very dense and hard.
 The electrons revolved the nucleus in well-defined orbits.
 The nucleus of an atom is very small as compared to the size of the atom.
Drawbacks:
 Rutherford proposed that the electrons revolve in circular orbits around the positively
charged nucleus at high speed.
 According to the electromagnetic theory, if a charged particle moves around charged
particle, it accelerates and continuously loses energy in the form of the radiant
energy.
 Loss of energy would slow down the speed of the electron and eventually, the
electron would fall into the nucleus.
 However, such a collapse did not occur and Rutherford’s model was unable to
explain the reason behind it.
Charg
Particle Mass Location
e
Proton +1 1 amu In the nucleus
Neutron 0 1 amu In the nucleus
Electron -1 Approx. 0 Spinning around the nucleus
Limitations:
 He could not explain the stability of the atom.
 He could not explain the distribution of electrons.
Question:
Rutherford’s alpha particle scattering experiment led to the
discovery of:
a. nucleus
b. electrons
c. protons
d. neutrons
Bohr’s Atomic Model:
 In 06.03.1922, Danish Physicist Niels Henrik David Bohr (07.10.1885 in
Copenhagen, Denmark – 18.11.1962 [77 age] in Copenhagen, Denmark) gave the
following atomic model:
 In order to explain the stability of an atom, Neils Bohr in 1913, gave a new model for
the arrangement of the electrons in the atom.
 As we should not walk on roads and must use zebra crossing only, similarly Neils
Bohr suggested that electrons could revolve around the nucleus only on a specific
path in the form of discrete orbits (energy levels); each orbit having a different radius.
 Bohr’s atomic model is also called as Planetary model as it resembles as Solar
system i.e., sun as nucleus and planets as electrons.
Postulates:
 Electrons revolve around the nucleus in certain discrete orbits (energy levels) without
losing energy.
 An electron present in a particular orbit possesses a definite amount of energy.
 An electron does not radiate energy (lose energy) even though it accelerates the
motion around the nucleus.
 These orbits are represented by the letters (K, L, M…) or numbers (1, 2, 3…).
Limitations:
 Bohr’s atomic model could not explain the ability of atoms to form molecule by
chemical bonds.
 His atomic model does explain why are some atoms of the same element heavier
i.e., presence of neutrons.
Chadwick’s Atomic Model:
 In 19.04.1932, British Physicist Sir James Chadwick CH FRS (20.10.1891 in
Bollington, England – 24.07.1974 [82 age] in Cambridge, England) gave the
following atomic model:
Neutron:
 Neutron – It is a neutral sub-atomic particle with mass nearly equal to protons.
 It was discovered by J. Chadwick in 1932.
 It is a chargeless atomic particle.
 Its mass is nearly equal to the mass of the proton.
 It is represented by n0.
Discovery of Neutron:
 In 1919, Ernst Rutherford discovered the existence of proton (a positively charged
particle within the atom’s nucleus).
 Somehow, the scientists were not convinced that proton is the only particle existing
in the nucleus.
 According to Rutherford, protons determine the atomic mass of the nucleus.
 It was also observed that number of protons is less than atomic mass.
Atomic No. = Number of protons in the nucleus = Total positive charge
Atomic Mass = Average mass of the atom
Atomic Mass ≠ Atomic No.
 For example, Helium’s Atomic Mass is 4 and the Atomic Number of Helium is 2.
 Since, the electrons have the negligible mass; it seems something besides proton
was adding upto the atomic mass.
 Rutherford put forward an idea that there might be another particle present in the
nucleus without a charge.
 But there was no evidence of this mysterious particle in the nucleus.
Chadwick’s Experiment:
 James Chadwick conducted numerous experiments to look for the neutral particle.
 He placed a piece of Polonium in an Evacuated chamber.

 In front of it a foil of Beryllium (a rare metallic element) was placed.
 The Alpha rays coming from the Polonium hit the Beryllium foil.
4 +2
 Alpha particles are the particles of Helium without any electrons i.e., 2He .
 On being hit by the alpha rays, beryllium foil emitted the mysterious rays i.e., Gama
rays (γ-rays).
 A target of a Paraffin wax of 2 mm thickness was kept in front of the rays.
 These rays knocked of the target charging the atoms of Beryllium.
 The neutral particles of helium pushes the protons out of Paraffin wax and neutral
particles stay in paraffin as it has equal mass of proton.
 The charged atoms of Beryllium were then made to enter a Gas filled chamber.
 The gas particles were ionised and drifted towards the electrode constituting a
current.
 Chadwick measured the current and estimated the speed of the charged atoms of
the Beryllium.
 He concluded that the neutral particle has mass equal to the proton.
 He identified this uncharged particle as Neutron.
 In 1935, Chadwick received the Nobel Prize for his discovery.
 Later on his experiments, late foundation of combining with neutrons for nuclear
reactions.
Atom:
 An atom is made up of three particles:
electron, proton and neutron
 Electrons carry negative charge, protons have positive charge whereas neutrons
carry no charge.
 Due to the presence of the equal number of negatively charged electrons and
positively charged protons, an atom as a whole, is electrically neutral.
A Recap:
Particle Symbol Charge Relative mass
Electron e- -1 0
Proton p+ +1 1
Neutron n0 0 1
Finally an atom looks like…
Structure of Atom:
 Coal contains Carbon (C) atoms, Gold bar contains Gold (Au) Atoms, and an
aluminium can contains Aluminium (Al) atoms.
 Our cell is the basic structural and the functional unit of all living organisms and is
called building blocks of life.
 It is clear that from these examples that all matter is made up of tiny particles called
atoms.
 The word ‘Atom’ has been derived from the Greek word “Atomos” which means
indivisible.
 An atom is the smallest particles of an element that can take part in a chemical
reaction.
 Atoms are so small in size that we cannot see them even under a powerful optical
microscope.
 An atom consists of a dense nucleus and a cloud of electrons.
 The nucleus is the cluster of Protons and Neutrons.
 An atom consists of an electrons, protons and neutrons.
 In the centre of an atom, there is a nucleus which is made up of subatomic particles
called protons and neutrons.
 A proton carries one unit of positive charge and is represented as p +.
 A neutron has no charge; it is neutral and is represented as n 0.
 Since, both protons and neutrons are present in the nucleus, so they are collectively
known as nucleons.
 This means that the overall charge of the nucleus is positive.
 The electrons revolve around the nucleus in fixed orbits at a very high speed.
 An electron carries one unit of negative charge and is represented as e -.
 These electrons are arranged in different shells around the nucleus.
 Each shell is associated with definite amount of energy and is called the Energy
Shell.
 These energy shells are named K, L, M and so on where K is the nearest to the
nucleus.
 The mass of a proton is eighteen hundred and forty times greater than that of an
electron.
 However, their electrical charges are equal in magnitude that is the number of
protons is always equal to the number of electrons.
 Due to the presence of the equal number of protons and electrons, an atom is
electrically neutral.
 We can say that a neutral atom has a same number of Protons and Electrons and it
is the force of attraction between the positive and negative charges that prevents the
electrons from escaping.
 It is the number of Protons, Electrons and Neutrons that distinguishes the atom of
one element from the atoms of another element.
 Atoms of different elements are made from different number of protons, electrons
and neutrons.
 Let us see some examples.
 If an atom has 1 proton, 1 electron and 0 neutrons, it forms an atom of Hydrogen.
 If there are 8 protons, 8 neutrons and 8 electrons, then we have an atom of Oxygen.
 If there are 12 protons, 12 neutrons and 12 electrons, then we have an atom of
Magnesium.
 From these examples, it is clear that an atom of hydrogen, oxygen and magnesium
contains different number of protons, electrons and neutrons.
 Atoms are the building blocks of matter and they consist of three fundamental
particles namely Proton, Neutron and Electron.
Subatomic
Relative Mass Relative Charge Found
Particle
Proton (p+) 1u +1 In the nucleus
Neutron (n0) 1u 0 In the nucleus
Electron (e-) 1/1836.15 u -1 Outside the nucleus
Question:
Goldstein’s experiment that involved passing high voltage
electricity through gases at very low pressure resulted in the discovery
of:
a. nucleus
b. neutron
c. electron
d. proton
Do you know:
 Nucleons are made of smaller particles called the quarks.
o Each neutron and proton contains three quarks.
 The quarks are held together by the particles known as gluons.
 We know about subatomic particles i.e., electron, proton and neutron.
 An atom may also consist of various subatomic particles like leptons, baryons and
mesons.
Some Important Concepts of Atom
Introduction:
 An atom is composed of sub-atomic particles which are as follows:
Particle Symbol Charge Relative mass
Electron e- -1 0
Proton p +
+1 1
Neutron n0 0 1
 Neutron – It is neutral in charge and has a mass nearly equal to proton.
 Nucleus – It constitutes protons and neutrons. The whole mass of an atom resides
in its nucleus.
 After the discovery of the sub-atomic particles, various scientists proposed various
models of an atom.
 Now, we shall study how electrons are filled in an atom and some more important
concepts of atom.
 Energy level indicates each shell has got a defined energy level.
E1 < E 2 < E 3 < E 4
Bohr-Bury Scheme:
 Electrons revolve around the nucleus in different energy levels or shells each shell is
associated with definite energy.
 The energy of the K shell is the least while that of L, M, N and O shells increases
progressively.
Bohr-Bury Scheme:
The distribution of the electrons into different orbits of an atom was suggested by
Bohr and Bury.
 The maximum number of electrons present in a shell (n) is given by the formula 2n 2,
where ‘n’ is the orbit number. This rule is also called as 2n 2 rule.
Shel
Orbit number (n) Number of electrons (2n2)
l
K 1 2(1)2 = 2 × 1 = 2
L 2 2(2)2 = 2 × 4 = 8
M 3 2(3)2 = 2 × 9 = 18
N 4 2(4)2 = 2 × 16 = 32
O 5 2(5)2 = 2 × 25 = 50
P 6 2(6)2 = 2 × 36 = 72
 The maximum number of electrons in the outermost orbit of an atom is 8. This rule
is also called as Octet rule in which “Octa” means eight.
Example:
Total number of electrons = 20
Expected distribution = K L M
1
2 8
0
Actual distribution = K L M N
2 8 8 2
 Electrons are not accommodated in a given shell, unless the inner shells are filled,
i.e., shells are filled in a step-wise manner.
Example:
Correct distribution of 13 electrons in K, L and M subshell.
K L M K L M
2 7 4  2 8 3
Electronic Configuration:
The arrangement of the electrons in the carious orbits of an atom of the element.
Examples:
Nitrogen
K L Magnesium (12) K L M
(7)
2 5 2 8 2
Neon (10) K L Argon (18) K L M

2 8 2 8 8
Bohr-Bury Rules:
 Electronic Configuration : The arrangement of the electrons in the different shells of
an atom.
 Different shells in an atom are K, L, M, and so on.
 Filling of electrons occurs sequentially starting from K shell which has minimum
energy.
 Stability of shells is in the order of K > L > M > N.
Bohr-Bury Scheme:
 The maximum number of electrons present in a shell is given by 2n2.
Maximum Number of Electrons Present in Different
Shells
Shell Maximum Number of Electrons Present
K-shell (n=1) 2 × 12 = 2
L-shell (n=2) 2 × 22 = 8
M-shell (n=3) 2 × 32 = 18
N-shell (n=4) 2 × 42 = 32
 The Maximum number of electrons that can accommodate in the outermost shell is
eight.
 Electrons do not enter in a new shell unless the inner shells are completely filled.
We have understood the filling of shells with the help of the electronic configuration of the
element.
RECAP:
Comparison of Atoms of the First Twenty Elements with Electron Distribution in Various
Shells
Number Number Number Distribution
Name of Symbo Atomic
of of of of Electrons Valency
Element l Number
Protons Neutrons Electrons K L M N
Hydrogen H 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1
Helium He 2 2 2 2 2 0 0 0 0
Lithium Li 3 3 4 3 2 1 0 0 +1
Beryllium Be 4 4 5 4 2 2 0 0 +2
Boron B 5 5 6 5 2 3 0 0 +3
Carbon C 6 6 6 6 2 4 0 0 4
Nitrogen N 7 7 7 7 2 5 0 0 -3
Oxygen O 8 8 8 8 2 6 0 0 -2
Fluorine F 9 9 10 9 2 7 0 0 -1
Neon Ne 10 10 10 10 2 8 0 0 0
Sodium Na 11 11 12 11 2 8 1 0 +1
Magnesium Mg 12 12 12 12 2 8 2 0 +2
Aluminium Al 13 13 14 13 2 8 3 0 +3
Silicon Si 14 14 14 14 2 8 4 0 4
Phosphorus P 15 15 16 15 2 8 5 0 -3
Sulphur S 16 16 16 16 2 8 6 0 -2
Chlorine Cl 17 17 18 17 2 8 7 0 -1
Argon Ar 18 18 22 18 2 8 8 0 0
Potassium K 19 19 20 19 2 8 8 1 +1
Calcium Ca 20 20 20 20 2 8 8 2 +2
Valency:
 The outermost shell of an atom is called as Valence shell.
 The electrons present in the Valence shell are called the valence electrons.
 The atoms of the elements having a completely filled outermost shell (eight
electrons) show little chemical activity,
 An outermost shell, which has eight electrons is said to possess an octet.
 Atoms have the tendency to react and form molecules as an attempt to achieve an
octet in the outermost shell.
 This is done by sharing, gaining or losing the electrons.
 The number of electrons gained, lost or shared gives the combining capacity of the
element.
Valency:
It is the number of electrons gained, lost or shared by an atom so as to make the
octet of the electrons in the outermost shell.
 If the number of valence electrons is 4 or less than 4, then the valency of the
element will be equal to the number of the valence electrons. To become stable, the
atom mainly metal atom loses some number of electrons and has protons in excess,
so, it is mentioned with the positive symbol (+).
Example:
Electronic configuration
Boro
K L
n Outermost shell
2 3
The number of the valence electrons is 3.
∴ Valency is +3.
 If the number of the valence electrons is more than 4, then the valency of the
element will be equal to:
Valency = 8 – Number of valence electrons
To become stable, the atom mainly non-metal atom gains some number of electrons
and has electrons in excess, so, it is mentioned with the negative symbol (-).
Example:
Fluorine K L
Outermost shell
2 7
The number of the valence electrons is 7.
∴ Valency is 8 – 7 = -1.
Questions:
1. Can you identify the valency of sulphur (Z = 16)?
Solution:
Sulphur K L M
Outermost shell
2 8 6
The number of valence electrons is 6.
∴ Valency of sulphur is 8 – 6 = -2.
2. For an element, Z = 9 the valency of this element will be:
a. -1
b. -2
c. +3
d. 4
Atomic Number:
 It represents the total number of protons present in the nucleus of an atom.
 It is denoted by Z.
 All the atoms of an element have the same atomic number.

zX
Since, the atom is electrically neutral, so the number of electrons and protons in
atom are equal.
No. of protons = No. of
electrons
 Examples:
Element Atomic number
Boron 5
Fluorine 9
Aluminium 13
Phosphorus 15
Argon 18
Mass Number:
 It represents the total number of protons and neutrons present in the nucleus of an
atom.
 It is denoted by A.

A
X
The mass of an atom is due to the protons and neutrons present in the nucleus of an
atom.
 Protons and neutrons are collectively called the nucleons.
Mass number = No. of Protons + No. of
Neutrons
Nucleons
 Since, the number of protons is equal to the atomic number of an element, so we
can write:
Mass number = Atomic number + No. of
Neutrons
 Examples:
Element Mass number
Hydrogen 1
Carbon 12
Aluminium 27
Chlorine 35.5
Question:
Calculate the number of electrons and neutrons for 13Al27.
Solution:
13 Al27
From the given representation, it is clear that:
Atomic number of aluminium = 13
Mass number of aluminium = 27
We know that
Atomic number = Number of electrons
∴ Number of electrons =
13
We know that
Mass number = Atomic number + Number of neutrons
On substituting the values, we get:
27 = 13 + Number of neutrons
Number of neutrons = 27 – 13
∴ Number of neutrons =
14
Representation of an Element:
 Atomic Mass  Top left i.e., Superscript
 Atomic Number  Bottom left i.e., Subscript
Mass number
A
Z X
Symbol of element
Atomic
number
Example:
27
Aluminium is written as: 13 Al
14
Nitrogen is written as: 7 N
Question:
Can you represent the atom of sodium which has the mass number
23 and the atomic number 11?
Solution:
23
11 Na
Mass number
Symbol
Atomic number
Isotopes:
Atoms of the same element having the same number of protons but different number
of neutrons.
 These are the atoms that have the same atomic number but different mass number.
Characteristics of Isotopes:
 Isotopes of an element consist of the same number of protons and electrons but
different number of neutrons.
 Isotopes of a particular element have the same chemical properties but different
physical properties.
 The mass of any natural element is taken as the average mass of all the naturally
occurring isotopes of that element.
Average Atomic Mass:
 Many elements consist of mixture of isotopes, that is the atoms having different
mass numbers.
The average atomic mass of an element is the average of the mass numbers of all the
naturally occurring isotopes of that element.
Examples:
Atomic Number – 1:
1
Hydrogen-1 / Protium 1 H /H 1 proton 0 neutron 1 electron 99.7% abundance
Hydrogen-2 / 2
1 H /D 1 proton 1 neutron 1 electron 0.02% abundance
Deuterium
3
Hydrogen-3 / Tritium 1 H /T 1 proton 2 neutrons 1 electron 0.01% abundance
10
Boron-10 5 B 5 protons 5 neutrons 5 electrons 20% abundance
11
Boron-11 5 B 5 protons 6 neutrons 5 electrons 80% abundance
12 98.88%
Carbon-12 6 C 6 protons 6 neutrons 6 electrons
abundance
13
Carbon-13 6 C 6 protons 7 neutrons 6 electrons 1.11% abundance
14
Carbon-14 6 C 6 protons 8 neutrons 6 electrons 0.01% abundance
35 17 17
Chlorine-35 17 Cl 18 neutrons 75.5% abundance
protons electrons
37 17 17
Chlorine-37 17 Cl 20 neutrons 25.5% abundance
protons electrons
79 35 35
Bromine-79 35 Br 44 neutrons 49.7% abundance
protons electrons
81 35 35
Bromine-81 35 Br 46 neutrons 50.3% abundance
protons electrons
234 92 142 92 0.005%
Uranium-234 92 U
protons neutrons electrons abundance
235 92 143 92 0.720%
Uranium-235 92 U
238 92 146 92 99.274%
Uranium-238 92 U
Question:
Naturally, chlorine occurs in the form of two different isotopes, Cl-
35 and Cl-37 in 3:1 proportion respectively. Can you calculate the
average atomic mass of chlorine?
Solution:
35 37
17 Cl 17 Cl
3× 35 1 ×37
Average atomic mass of chlorine = +
3+1 3+1
105+37
=
4
142
=
4
= 35.5 u
Applications of Isotopes:
 An isotope of uranium i.e., Uranium-235 is used as fuel in the nuclear reactor.
 An isotope of cobalt is used in the treatment of cancer.
 An isotope of Iodine is used in the treatment of goitre.
 Technetium-99 radioactive isotope is used as a tracer in the bone scans.
Isotopes:
 Atom consists of a nucleus and electrons.
 Nucleus consists of protons and neutrons.
 The protons are positively charged while the neutrons do not carry any charge.
 The number of protons present in the nucleus is referred as Atomic Number.
Atomic Number = Total Number of Protons
 The total number of protons and neutrons present in the atom are called its Mass
Number.
Mass Number = Total Number of Protons + Neutrons
 As atoms of a same element have same number of protons, they have same atomic
number.
 The number of protons in an atom remains same, but the number of neutrons may
differ.
 It implies that Atomic Number of an atom remains same but mass number differs.
 Atoms of an element having same atomic number but different mass number are
known as isotopes.
Characteristics of Isotopes:
 Isotopes of an element consist of the same number of protons and electrons, but
different number of neutrons.
 Isotopes show similar behaviour during chemical reactions.
 Isotopes of a particular element have the same chemical properties but different
physical properties.
o Chemical Properties:
 Combustibility
 Reactivity with…
 Flammability
o Physical Properties:
 Malleability
 Colour, Shape, Mass, Volume
 Boiling point, melting point, density, volume, weight
 State of matter, texture, luster, solubility
 Ductility
 The atomic mass of any element is taken as the Average mass of all naturally
occurring isotopes of that element.
o For example, natural sample of Chlorine contains two different isotopes:
 Chlorine-35  75.5 % and
 Chlorine-36  24.5 %
o Calculation of atomic mass of chlorine:
( 75.5× 35 ) + ( 24.5 ×37 )
Average atomic mass =
100
The relative atomic mass of chlorine = 35.5
Isobars:
These are the atoms that have the same mass numbers but different atomic numbers.
Characteristics of Isobars:
 Two isobars have different number of protons and electrons but the number of
nucleons remains the same.
 The sum of the number of protons and neutrons present in the nucleus of an atom is
called the nucleons.
 Isobars have different chemical as well as physical properties.
Isobars:
 Isobars are the atoms of different elements that have same mass number but
different atomic number.
 The word “ISOBAR” has been derived from the Greek word “ISOS” which means
‘Equal’ and “BAROS” which means ‘Weight’.
 Atomic Number = No. of Protons
 Mass number = No. of Protons + No. of neutrons
= Nucleons
 So, we can say that Isobars have same number of nucleons.
 On comparing isobar atoms, the Atomic numbers are different, while the total
number of protons and neutrons are same i.e., the Mass numbers are same in all
three of them.
∴ Isobars may also be defined as the atoms of different elements that have different Atomic
number but equal mass number.
Examples:
Mass Number – 3:
3
Hydrogen H
1 1 proton 2 neutrons 1 electron
3
Helium 2He 2 protons 1 neutron 2 electrons
Mass Number – 14:
14
Carbon 6 C 6 protons 8 neutrons 6 electrons
14
Nitrogen 7 N 7 protons 7 neutrons 7 electrons
Mass Number – 40:
40
Sulphur 16 S 16 protons 24 neutrons 16 electrons
40
Potassium 19 K 19 protons 21 neutrons 19 electrons
40
Calcium 20 Ca 20 protons 20 neutrons 20 electrons
40
Chlorine 17 Cl 17 protons 23 neutrons 17 electrons
40
Argon 18 Ar 18 protons 22 neutrons 18 electrons
Mass Number – 54:
54
Chromium 24 Cr 24 protons 30 neutrons 24 electrons
54
Iron 26 Fe 26 protons 28 neutrons 26 electrons
Niels Bohr:
 Niels Henrik David Bohr (Niels Bohr) was a Danish physicist.
 He was the first to apply the quantum concept, which restricts the energy of a system
to certain discrete values, to the problem of atomic and molecular structure.
 He was awarded the Noble Prize in 1922 for his work on atomic theory.
Chapter-2 Is Matter Around Us Pure
Introduction:
 We noticed the word “Pure” written on the packets of consumable commodities.
 For a common mam, ‘Pure’ means “Anything that is free from IMPURITIES”.
 The statement holds false for the scientists.
 When a scientist says that something is Pure, it means “all the constituent particles
of that substance are the same in their chemical nature”.
o Example: Pure gold (Au)
Matter:
Anything that occupies space and has mass.
Matter
Pure Impure
Substances Substances
Homogeneous Heterogeneous
Elements Compounds
Mixtures Mixture
Metals Solutions Colloids
Non-metals Suspensions
Metalloids
Pure substance:
 Pure substances consist of “only one kind of matter”, that is, all the particles of a
pure substance are alike.
o For example: All particles of sugar (Glucose – C 6H12O6, Sucrose – C12H22O11)
and Common salt (Sodium Chloride – NaCl) are same.
 Pure substances cannot be split into simpler substances by physical means.
o For example: We cannot split sugar (Glucose – C 6H12O6, Sucrose –
C12H22O11) and water (H2O) into simpler substances.
Element:
 It is a substance that cannot be broken down further by an ordinary chemical
change.
 It is a pure substance, which is made up of only one kind of atom.
 Elements cannot be further reduced to simpler substances.
 For example: Gold, silver, sulphur, carbon, oxygen, etc.
 Elements can be classified into:
o Metals (Iron, Aluminium)
o Metalloids (Arsenic, Silicon)
o Non-metals (Sulphur, Oxygen)
Metals:
 Metals are elements that Lose electrons to form cations.
 They are Strong solids i.e., hard solids. [except Sodium (Na) and Potassium (K)]
 They are Malleable i.e., can be hammered into sheets. [except Mercury (Hg) and
Gallium (Ga)]
 They are Ductile i.e., can be drawn into wires. [except Zinc (Zn) and Arsenic (As)]
 They are Lustrous i.e., shining. [except Sodium (Na) and Potassium (K)]
 They are Sonorous i.e., can produce sound when hit with an object. [except Mercury
(Hg) and Cesium (Cs)]
 They have Conductivity i.e., good conductors of heat and electricity. [except Gold
(Au) and Platinum (Pt)]
 They have High melting and boiling points. [except Francium (Fr) and Mercury (Hg)]
 They have Greyish colour i.e., colour similar to grey. [except Gold (Au) and Copper
(Cu)].
 Examples:
o Sodium (Na)
o Potassium (K)
o Mercury (Hg)
o Gallium (Ga)
o Zinc (Zn)
o Arsenic (As)
o Cesium (Cs)
o Gold (Au)
o Platinum (Pt)
o Francium (Fr)
o Copper (Cu)
Did you Know?
 Majority of the elements are solids.
 Mercury is the only metals, which is liquid at room temperature.
 Elements, gallium (Ga) and cesium (Cs) become liquid at a temperature slightly
above the room temperature (303 K).
 Eleven elements are in gaseous state at room temperature.
o Hydrogen, Helium, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Fluorine, Neon, Chlorine, Argon,
Krypton, Xenon, Radon.
Non-metals:
 Non-metals are elements that Gain electrons to form anions.
 They are Brittle-solids or gases i.e., easily broken-solids or gases at room
temperature. [except Diamond (C) and Bromine (Br)]
 They are Non-malleable i.e., cannot be hammered into sheets. [except Crystalline
(Si) and Amorphous (Am)]
 They are Non-ductile i.e., cannot be drawn into wires. [except Carbon (C) and
Selenium (Se)]
 They are Non-lustrous i.e., not shining. [except Diamond (C) and Iodine (I)]
 They are Non-sonorous i.e., cannot produce sound when hit with an object. [except
Phosphorus (P) and Diamond (C)]
 They have Non-conductivity i.e., poor conductors of heat and electricity. [except
Graphite (C) and Antimony (Sb)]
 They have low melting and boiling points. [except Diamond (C) and Graphite (C)]
 They have Variety of colours. [except Carbon (C), Iodine (I)]
 Examples:
o Diamond (C)
o Bromine (Br)
o Crystalline (Si)
o Amorphous (Am)
o Carbon (C)
o Selenium (Se)
o Iodine (I)
o Phosphorus (P)
o Graphite (C)
o Antimony (Sb)
Points to Remember:
 Bromine is the only non-metal, existing as a liquid at room temperature.
 Graphite is a form of carbon. It is a non-metal, still a good conductor of electricity
and has a high melting point.
 Iodine is a non-metal but it has lustre.
Metalloids:
 It is a chemical element whose properties are a mixture of those of the metals and
non-metals.
 Metalloids show the properties of both metals and non-metals.
 They are used as semiconductors because they are neither good conductors of
electricity nor insulators.
 For example: Germanium, Silicon, Boron, etc.
Compounds:
 It has a definite composition and constant properties, but can be broken down into
elements by a chemical change.
 Compounds are the substance made up of more than two types of elements
combined together chemically in definite proportion by weight.
 They are pure substances that can be decomposed into simpler substances by
chemical methods.
Properties of Compounds:
 Compounds are homogeneous substances.
 They have the same composition and properties throughout.
 The constituents of a compound are in fixed proportion by weight.
 The composition of a compound is represented by a molecular formula.
Mixtures:
 Contain more than one kind of pure form of matter.
 Cannot be separated into other kinds of matter by any physical process.
 Their constituents do not lose their identity.
 Mixtures do not have fixed melting and boiling points.
 Formation of mixture is a physical process.
 Constituents of a mixture are held together by physical forces.
 Examples:
o Paints
o Blood
o Muddy water
o Hair sprays
o Fog and Mist
o Milk of Magnesia
o Lemonade
o Sea water
 Difference:
o Years before, Noodles have the vegetables and species as direct mixtures
which are not uniformly disturbed (Heterogeneous). So, vegetables are
visible.
o Nowadays, Noodles have masala i.e., grinded vegetables and species as
indirect mixtures which are uniformly disturbed (Homogeneous). So,
vegetables are not visible.
Types of Mixtures:
Based on the uniformity of the constituents of the mixture:
 Homogeneous mixtures
 Heterogeneous mixtures
Homogeneous Mixtures:
 It refers to a mixture whose composition is uniform throughout.
 They have uniform composition.
 For example:
o Sugar solution
o Soft drinks
o Alcohol and Water
o Lemonade
Activity:
 In this we require:
o Beaker A with 50 mL water
o Beaker B with 50 mL water
o Copper sulphate crystals
 Add about 2 to 3 crystals of copper sulphate in beaker A.
 Then about 1 to 2 crystals of copper sulphate in beaker B.
 Thus, we obtain copper sulphate solution in both.
 We see that the copper sulphate crystals dissolve uniformly in both the beakers.
 Though, both the beaker have copper sulphate solution but the intensity of the colour
of the solutions is different.
Properties of Homogeneous Mixture:

 The components of a mixture dissolve uniformly and are not visible with the naked
eyes.
 The homogeneous mixture can have a variable composition.
Heterogeneous Mixtures:
 It refers to a mixture that does not have a uniform composition throughout.
 They have non-uniform composition.
 They have two or more phases with the definite boundaries between the phases.
 For example:
o Iron fillings with sulphur powder
o Milk
o Soil
o Flour in water
 Air has a variable composition thus, it is HETEROGENEOUS.
 Sea has a variable composition thus, it is HETEROGENEOUS.
Point to Remember:
Clear air/pure air (free from dust) is considered as a homogeneous mixture.
Questions:
1. An example of homogenous mixture is:
a. Mixture of petrol and oil.
b. Mixture of sugar and sand.
c. Mixture of salt and sand.
d. Mixture of iron filings and sulphur.
2. An example of heterogeneous mixture is:
a. Lemonade.
b. Kerosene oil.
c. Brass.
d. Ink.
Solution:
 A solution is defined as a homogenous mixture of two or more chemically non-
reacting species, for example tea.
 Its composition can be varied.
 Aqueous solution has water as solvent.
 The solutions in which solvent other than water is used are called the non-aqueous
solutions.
 For example: Benzene, ether and petrol are non-aqueous solvents.
Solution
Solvent Solute
Aqueous solvent
Non-aqueous solvent
Solvent:
 A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances.
 For example, salt solution, copper sulphate solution, soft drinks, etc…
 They are two components of a solution namely Solute (Usually present in lesser
amount) and Solvent (Usually present in large amount).
 The component of the solution that dissolves in other component is called as the
Solute.
 Nail polish is applied to the nails of fingers or toes to decorate them.
 Nail polish is insoluble in water but is soluble in Propanone which is a non-aqueous
solvent.
 The component that dissolves the other component in it is called solvent.
 Here, Propanone is a solvent and nail polish is a solute.
 Salt solution is made up of two components, salt and water. Here, salt is solute and
water is solvent.
 Add a small amount of dye in water. Water is the most common solvent; still this dye
is not soluble in water.
 In fact, no matter how much it is turned, it will not mix at all.
 Now add a small amount of dye in another solvent Ethanol which is a non-aqueous
solvent.
 Stir the solution and we will see that solution is red but clear.
 Now, suppose we are asked to find out whether clay is soluble in water or not.
 Add clay in water and stir the solution well. We will see that the clay mixes well in
the water, but the solution is not clear. It is cloudy. This is how we know that the
clay is insoluble in water.
 If we compare sugar solution and clay solution, we will come to know that the solute
which dissolves completely in water gives a clear solution and the solute which is
insoluble in water gives an unclear solution.
 We know can say that Copper Sulphate Solution is a homogeneous mixture of
Copper which is a solute and Water which is a solvent.
Properties of Solutions:
 They are homogeneous mixtures of two or more substances.
 Solutions pass through filter paper but their components cannot be separated by
filtration.
 Solutions have two components: a solute present in relatively smaller quantity and a
solvent present in relatively larger quantity.
o For example: In salt solution, salt is the solute and water is the solvent.
 They are always clear and transparent.
 The particles of a solution are smaller than 1 nm (10-9 metre). They cannot be seen
with the naked eyes.
 Solutions do not scatter light due to their small size.
 The particles of a solution do not settle down when left undisturbed.
Types of Solutions:
Solution can be:
 Solid Solution (Brass)
 Liquid Solution (Soft Drink)
 Gas Solution (Iodine Vapour)
Solid Solution:
S.No Solven
Solute Types Example
. t
1 Solid Solid Solid in solid Alloys
2 Liquid Solid Liquid in solid Amalgam
3 Gas Solid Gas in solid Hydrogen (H2) in Platinum (Pt) of Palladium (Pd)
Here, the physical state of solvent is solid.
Did you Know:
 Leander Paes had won a bronze medal in Atlanta Olympics (1996).
 We would be surprised to know that the bronze used for making these medals is a
mixture; although its constituents cannot be separated.
Alloys:
 Alloys are the homogeneous mixtures of two or more metals or a metal and non-
metal.
 These cannot be separated into their components by physical methods.
 They are considered as a mixture because they exhibit the properties of its
constituents.
 For example:
o Bronze is alloy of copper and tin.
o Brass is alloy of copper and zinc.
Liquid Solutions:
S.No
Solute Solvent Types Example
.
1 Solid Liquid Solid in liquid Salt solution
Liquid in
2 Liquid Liquid Ethanol in water
liquid
3 Gas Liquid Gas in liquid Aerated drink
Most significant types of solutions are those that are in liquid phase.
Gas Solutions:
S.No
Solute Solvent Types Example
.
1 Solid Gas Solid in gas Iodine vapour
Liquid in
2 Liquid Gas Humidity in air
gas
3 Gas Gas Gas in gas Air
Here, the physical state of solvent is gas.
Solubility and Concentration:
Solubility:
 Solubility is defined as the ability of a solute to dissolve in the solvent.
 It is also defined as the maximum amount of solute dissolved in the given amount of
solvent at that room temperature.
 Solubility of solids depends on the:
o nature of solute.
o nature of solvent.
o temperature.
Dilute and Concentrated Solutions:
 A solution may have a small amount of solute dissolved in it, while another solution
may have a larger amount of solute dissolved in it.
 A solution having lesser amount of solute is known as Dilute solution whereas a
solution having comparatively more amount of solute is known as Concentrated
solution.
 Let us perform an activity for better understanding.
 We need two labelled beakers A and B containing 100 mL water each, a small
amount of sugar and a stirrer.
 Add about 1 spoon full of sugar in beaker A and stir.
 We see that the sugar dissolves in the water.
 Then we add about 5 spoon full of sugar in beaker B and stir.
 We see that the sugar has completely dissolved in water. However, the sugar
solution has acquired a yellow tinge as it has more sugar dissolved in.
 Thus, we can know say that the sugar solution in beaker B is a Concentrated
solution and sugar solution in beaker A is a Dilute solution.
Dilute solution:
The solution having lesser amount of solute is termed as the dilute solution.
Concentrated solution:
The solution having comparatively more amount of solute is known as the
concentrated solution.
Activity:
 If we keep adding salt in a beaker containing 50 mL of water; after certain additions,
salt starts settling down and accumulating at the bottom of the beaker.
 This resulting solution is called the saturated solution.
Unsaturated solution:
A solution in which more amount of solute can be dissolved without increasing the
temperate is known as unsaturated solution.
Saturated solution:
A solution in which no more solute can be dissolved at a given temperature is called
saturated solution.
Supersaturated solution:
A solution that contains more than the maximum amount of solute that is capable of
being dissolved at boiling point is called as Supersaturated solution.
Point to Remember:
A solution, which is saturated at a given temperature, becomes unsaturated when its
temperature is increased.
Concentration:
 The amount of solute dissolved in a particular amount of solvent is known as
composition or strength or concentration of a solution.
 The concentration of a solution can be expressed in various ways, which are as
follows:
o Percentage composition (Mass and Volume)
o Molarity (M), Molality (m)
o Mole fraction (χ)
o Parts per million
Mass Percentage:
 It is defined as the mass of a solute in grams dissolved per 100 grams of the
solution.
 It is also referred to as weight percentage (w/w) or percentage by mass.
 Mathematically,
Mass of solute
Mass percentage of solute = × 100
Mass of solute+ Mass of solvent
OR
Mass of solute
Mass percentage of solute = × 100
Mass of solution
(Mass of solution = Mass of solute + Mass of solvent)
Example:
10% (by mass) of sodium chloride solution means
 Amount of sodium chloride = 10 g
 Amount of solution = 100 g
This means that 10 g of sodium chloride is present in 100 g of solution.
 Amount of solvent (Water) = (100 g – 10 g)
= 90 g
Question: If I dissolve 20 go sucrose in 200 g of water, what will be the
mass percentage of sucrose in the solution?
Given:
Mass of sucrose dissolved = 20 g
Mass of solvent (water) = 200 g
We know that:
Mass of solution = Mass of solute + Mass of solvent
= (200 g + 20 g)
= 220 g
Mass of sucrose
Mass percentage of sucrose = × 100
Mass of solution
By substituting the given values, we get:
20 g
= × 100
220 g
= 9.09%
Mass by Volume Percentage:
 It is the amount of solute (in grams) present in 100 mL of solution.
Mass of solute × 100
Mass/Volume percentage of solute (% w/v) =
Volume of the solution
 A 20 % (w/v) solution of sodium chloride means that 20 g of sodium chloride is

dissolved in 100 mL of solution.
Volume Percentage:
 It is defined as the amount of solute (in mL) present in 100 mL of the solution.
V V solute ×100
% =
V V solution
 For example, wine contains about 12% v/v ethanol, which means that there is 12 mL
of ethanol present in every 100 mL of wine.
Question: What is meant by 12% (v/v) HCl?
Given:
Volume of HCl = 12 mL
Volume of solution = 100 mL
This means that 12 mL of HCl is dissolved in 100 mL of solution.
Suspension:
 Close all the windows and doors. Put the curtains down. Open the window or the
door which is facing the sun. We observe dust particles floating in the beam of
sunlight. These are called suspended particles (dust).
 A type of heterogeneous mixture in which very fine particles are suspended in the
bulk of a medium without dissolving in it.
Properties of Suspension:
 Suspension is a heterogeneous mixture and is unstable.
 The particles of suspension are large enough to be seen with the naked eyes.
 When a beam of light is passed through the suspension, it scatters light and it makes
the path of light visible where we can see the particles of suspension.
 Its components can be separated by filtration.

 A suspension is either opaque or translucent.
 Example: Sand mixed with water and chalk powder in water.
Did you Know:
Slaked lime (Calcium hydroxide) used in white washing, is a suspension.
Colloids:
 All these are colloids:
o Milk
o Jelly
o Fog
 A colloid is a heterogeneous mixture.
 It has two components, the dissolved phase is called dispersed phase and the
continuous phase is called dispersed medium.
 For example: Soap solution, ink, blood
 Dispersed Phase + Dispersed Medium  Colloidal Solution
 Examples:
o Butter
 Dispersed phase : Liquid
 Dispersed medium : Liquid
o Smoke:
 Dispersed phase : Solid
 Dispersed medium : Gas
Properties of Colloids:
 The particles size is more than 1nm but particles cannot be seen with the naked
eyes.
 Colloidal solution is stable, i.e., particles do not settle down when left undisturbed.
 The components of colloids can be separated by centrifugation.
 The particles of colloid are in the state of continuous motion. It is called Brownian
movement.
 Colloidal solution scatters light.
 The phenomenon of scattering of light by the colloidal particles is called the Tyndall
effect.
 Tyndall effect seen/used in day-to-day life:
o Sunlight passing through the canopy of a dense forest.
o Light from a projector thrown on the screen in a cinema hall.
o Sky appears blue due to the Tyndall effect.
Brownian Movement:
 When viewed under magnification, the colloidal particles appear to be in a state of
continuous zigzag motion.
 This motion is known as the Brownian movement.
Tyndall Effect:
 When a beam of light is passed through a colloidal system, the colloidal particles
scatter the light in all the directions.
 If the path of beam through the colloidal system is viewed in the dark, it becomes
illuminated with a bluish light.
 This scattering of light by the colloidal particles is known as the Tyndall effect.
 The colloidal particles are big enough to scatter a beam of light passing through it
and make its path visible.
Tyndall Effect:
 We have noticed a fine beam of sunlight entering a room through a window. The
path of the beam of light is visible to us.
 It is because the tiny dust particles present in the air of a room scatter the beam of
light all around us.
 The scattering of light by colloidal particles of matter present in its path is called the
Tyndall effect.
 Let us understand about Tyndall effect with the help of an activity.
 For this activity, we need Tap water, Milk solution, Soap solution and a Laser torch.
 Take a beaker filled with tap water; now pass a beam of light through the tap water
with the help of a laser torch.
 The laser beam doesn’t pass through the tap water because the particle’s size is not
too large to cause the Tyndall scattering.
 Now take a beaker filled with soap solution; pass a beam of light through the soap
solution with the help of a laser torch.
 The light ray is visible to us because of the scattering of light through the soap
solution.
 This phenomenon takes place because the colloidal particles are spherical and large
enough to scatter the beam of light.
 We will repeat the same procedure with milk solution to check whether it shows the
Tyndall effect or not; now, pass a beam of light through a milk solution with the help
of a laser torch.
 Again we can see the light is being scattered because the size of the particles is
large and they are able to scatter the light.
 So from this activity, we conclude that the Soap solution and Milk solution show the
Tyndall effect as their particles are large and colloidal in nature; and hence scatter
the beam of light.
Examples of Colloids:
S.No Dispersed Dispersed Name of
Example
. phase medium colloid
Milky glass, Precious
1 Solid Solid Solid Sol
stones
Mud, Milk of
2 Solid Liquid Sol
magnesia
3 Solid Gas Aerosol Smoke, dust
4 Liquid Solid Gel Cheese, Jelly
Milk, Butter, Face
5 Liquid Liquid Emulsion
cream
6 Liquid Gas Liquid Aerosol Mist, Fog, Cloud
7 Gas Solid Solid foam Foam, Rubber
8 Gas Liquid Foam Shaving cream
Question:
This is one most likely to exhibit the Tyndall effect is:
a. Mixture of potassium permanganate and water.
b. Mixture of potash alum and water.
c. Mixture of chalk powder and water.
d. Mixture of sugar and water.
Separation of Mixtures:
 Mixtures have two or more than two substances mixed in them. Like Mixture of Iron
sulphide that has Sulphur and Iron fillings.
 It may not be possible to use a mixture as such.
 So, we have to separate the various mixtures into their individual constituents.
 A mixture is made up of two or more substances, which are mixed but not chemically
united.
 Different substances that constitute a mixture are called Constituents or Components
of a mixture.
Need for Separation of Mixtures:
 To remove undesirable substances.
 To take out impurities.
 To obtain useful components.
 The choice of method of separation of a mixture from its constituents depends upon:
o Physical state of solution
o Physical properties of its constituents
 Example: Boiling point, melting point, solubility, magnetic properties.
 Separation of mixtures include:
o Mixtures of solids
o Mixtures of solids and liquids
o Mixtures of Liquids
Mixtures of solids:
 Fruit Salad is a mixture of different fruits; we can pick the fruit our choice very easily
from the fruit salad.
 In order to separate grains from the chaff we have to use a different technique.
 We need to separate the mixture into its constituents in order to remove undesirable
substances and obtain useful constituents.
 The choice of method used for separating components of mixture of solids depends
on difference in the properties of their components.
 Separation of solid from other solid includes:
o Sieving
o Threshing
o Winnowing
o Hand-picking
Sieving:
 Sieving is one of the most commonly used methods for separating mixtures of solids.
 This method used when there is considerable difference in the size of the
components of the solids.
 Sieve with pores of appropriate size is used to separate the constituents of the
mixture.
 Sieving is an act of separating small particles from bigger ones by passing the
mixture through a sieve.
 The sieve used for sieving the flour has very small holes which allow only very fine
flour particles to pass through them.
 The coarse particles are left behind in the sieve.
Threshing:
 Another method used for the separation of solids from their mixture is threshing.
 Threshing an act of separating the grains from the stalks.
 In this process, the bundle of dried stalks of grains is beaten on a hard object.
 On beating the stalks the grains fall freely.
 The grains are then collected in a container.
Winnowing:
 Next method of separation is Winnowing.
 We know that grains heaving than chaff.
 Therefore, in order to separate grains from the mixture of grains in chaff, the mixture
is allowed to fall from height so that the wind blows away the lighter chaff while the
heavier grains falls down.
Hand-picking:
 Hand-picking is a very common method used for separating components of mixtures
of solids.
 This method involves picking out substances from hand and separating them from
others.
 The substances being separating may be undesirable substances like pieces of
stones and rice.
 These undesirable substances are different from the rice in colour and size.
 These substances could also be useful; for example, if we have a mixture of green
and black grapes then with the help of hand picking method, we can separate them.
Mixtures of Solids and Liquids:
 Separation of Solid from Liquid:
o Evaporation
o Centrifugation
o Sublimation
Evaporation:
 Liquids are of the mixtures of different things which may be solid or liquid or even
gases.
 Let us dissolve some salt in water.
 Look, a clear salt solution is prepared.
 Now, you cannot see particles of salt in this solution.
 If you place the salt solution in a plate, overnight the water will evaporate leaving the
salt in the plate.
 If we do this process by boiling the water, the water evaporates quickly in the form of
water vapour leaving the salt behind.
 The process of conversion of water into vapour is called evaporation.
 Evaporation is used to recover solid particles form the solutions.
 Common salt is obtained by evaporation of sea water.
 Sea water is tabbed in the compartments.
 In a few days, the water evaporates completely and salt is gotten collected in a
corner.
 Again, fresh sea water is tabbed and it is called salt forming.
Separation of Components of Ink by evaporation:
 The blue ink used in fountain pens is an equal mixture. It is a mixture of Dye in
water where dye is the coloured component of the ink. We can separate the dye
from the ink by the process of evaporation.
 Let us perform an activity to understand how the process of evaporation takes place.
 For this we need a Tripod stand, a Spirit lamp, a Wire gauge, a Matchbox, a Beaker,
Water, a Watch glass, Ink and a Dropper.
 First, fill a beaker half with water.
 Put a few drops ink on the watch glass.
 Now put the watch glass containing ink over the mouth of the beaker containing
water which is kept on a tripod stand.
 Now, we start heating the beaker.
 Soon, we see that the water from the beaker starts boiling.
 This heat, heats the ink in the watch glass.
 Due to this heating, the water present in the ink starts evaporating gradually.
 When all the water has evaporated from the ink, we stop heating.
 We will find that the small amount of solid coloured component is left on the watch
glass.
 This coloured substance is the dye that was present in the ink.
 Hence, a Volatile component i.e., Water can be separated from its Non-Volatile
component i.e., Dye by the method of Evaporation.
Centrifugation:
Churning:
 Now-a-days, full-cream, toned and double-toned varieties of milk packed in
polypacks or tetra packs are available in the market. Double toned milk is obtained
from full-creamed milk by the method of churning.
 Separation of lighter particles of solid suspended in liquid.
 Done with the hands by using stirred (hand-churner) or with mixer.
 Butter is obtained by churning curd.
 Churning butter is an ancient act.
 The earliest churns were made of goat skin and it took a very long time to make
even the tiniest bit of butter.
 Today, we use the hand-churns and the electric churns, so that the process of
making butter becomes less time consuming.
 Churning is used for separating the lighter particles of solids suspended in a liquid.
 In hand churning, a stick called Dasher or Churn-dash stirs in a circular rhythmic
motion at a very high speed in an earthenware pot with the help of rope.
 As a result, the lighter particles get collected above the liquid.
 This method is used in the dairies for separating the fat from the milk.
Centrifugation:
 The fat particles present in milk are very small and cannot be separated by the
filtration technique.
 The technique used to separate lighter particles of a solid suspended in a liquid
quickly.
 Such mixtures are separated by centrifugation.
 Principle: Denser particles are forced to the bottom and the lighter particles stay at
the top when spun rapidly.
Application of Centrifugation:
 Used in diagnostic laboratories for blood and urine tests.
 Used in dairies and home to separate butter and cream.
 Used in washing machines to squeeze out water from wet clothes.
Sublimation:
 During sublimation, a substance changes from solid to gas without first changing into
liquid.
 Mixture to be separated, must contain sublime component to utilise this method.
 Examples: Ammonium chloride, camphor, naphthalene and anthracene.
 We will know perform an experiment to demonstrate the sublimation of ammonium
chloride. (This experiment can also be performed for the separation of camphor and
salt).
 We take some ammonium chloride in a china dish and place it on the tripod stand.
The china dish is covered with an inverted glass funnel.
 A loose cotton plug is put in the upper open end of the funnel to prevent the
ammonium chloride vapours from escaping into the atmosphere.
 The china dish is heated by using a burner. On heating, the ammonium chloride
transforms into white vapours. These vapours rise up and get converted into solid
ammonium chloride on coming in contact with the cold inner walls of the funnel.
 In this manner, Ammonium chloride collects on the inner sides of the funnel in the
form of a sublimate and can be removed.
Sublimation : a separation technique:

 In stage shows or live performances, we might have seen fog or smoke effect.
 This effect is created by the sublimation of dry ice or solid carbon dioxide.
 Sublimation is the process by which solid directly changes into vapours on heating.
 Naphthalene, Camphor, Ammonium chloride are some examples of sublimating
substances.
 Now, we are going to perform an activity to understand how ammonium chloride
sublimates.
 For this activity we need Ammonium Chloride, Cotton Wool, China Dish, Funnel,
Spirit Lamp, Tripod Stand and Wire gauze.
 Take some Ammonium chloride in a China dish.
 Invert a glass funnel over it.
 Plug the funnel with cotton wool to avoid the vapours to mix with air.
 Heat this mixture.
 Vapours are formed and are moving toward the cooler part of the funnel.
 These are vapours of Ammonium Chloride, because it is a sublimating substance.
 After some time, the whole amount of Ammonium Chloride sublimates.
 On cooling, solid Ammonium Chloride deposits on the inner surface of the funnel.
 This method is used for separating solid mixtures in which one of the components
can sublimate on heating.
Mixture of Liquids:
 Mixture of liquids are of two types, namely:
o Miscible liquids
o Immiscible liquids
 Separation of mixture of liquid includes:
o Separating funnel
o Paper chromatography
o Simple Distillation
o Fractional Distillation
o Crystallisation
Separating Funnel:
 It is glass equipment that is used to separate two liquids that are immiscible in each
other.
 Immiscible liquid:
o Kerosene oil + Water
o Petrol + Water
o Diesel + Water
o Milk + Groundnut oil
 These types of mixtures can be separated by using a separating funnel.
Principle:
The principle is that immiscible liquids (i.e., kerosene oil and water) separate out in
layers depending on their densities.
Procedure:
 Let the immiscible liquids (i.e., kerosene oil and water) stand undisturbed for
sometime so that separate layers of oil and water are formed.
 Open the stopcock of the separating funnel and pour out the lower layer of water
carefully.
 Close the stopcock of the separating funnel as the oil reaches the stopcock.
 The kerosene oil is left behind in the separating funnel which is collected in a
separate beaker by opening the stopcock again.
Applications:
 It is used to separate the mixture of oil and water.
 In the extraction of iron, the lighter slag is removed from the top by this method;
leaving behind molten iron at the bottom in the furnace.
Separating funnel:
 Separating funnel is used for separating two immiscible liquids; for example, oil and
water.
 The funnel is clammed on an upend stand and the mixture is taken in a separating
funnel.
 It is allowed to stand for sometime; oil and water separate to form two layers.
 The two layers formed are usually known as the Organic and Aqueous phases.
 The upper layer is of oil because it is lighter than water, while lower layer is of water.
 Water is collected by opening a stopcock and oil is left behind in the separating
funnel.
 Oil is collected in another beaker.
 This method is based on the difference in the densities of the two liquids.
Paper Chromatography:
Chromatography:
 Chromatography is the most modern technique used for the separation and
purification of substances.
 It is used to separate the components that are soluble in the same solvent.
Chromatography
Absorption Chromatography Partition chromatography
Thin layer chromatography Paper

chromatography
Column chromatography
Paper Chromatography:
Paper chromatography is used to analyse the presence of different colours in a dye
or in a black ink.
 Paper chromatography is used to analyse the presence of different colours in a dye

or in black ink.
 By using paper chromatography we can separate two or more different substances
present in the same solution.
 Let us perform an activity to separate the different coloured dyes present in black
ink.
 For this we need, a Whatman filter paper strip, a Pencil, a Scale, Sketch pens, a
Stirrer, Water and a Beaker.
 Take a strip of Whatman filter paper.
 Now, with the help of a scale, draw a baseline across the width of the paper.
 Remember, the drawn line at paper should be atleast 1 or 2 cm above from the
bottom.
 Put a small dot with a blue sketch pen on the filter paper at the center of the
baseline.
 Let the ink dry for few seconds.
 Till then, take a beaker and add approximately 100 mL water to it.
 When the drop of the ink is dried, the filter paper is held vertically with the help of a
glass rod and is then kept on the mouth of the beaker.
 Remember that, the lower end of the strip should just touch the water but the pencil
line should remain above the water level in the beaker.
 Leave it undisturbed for sometime.
 After sometime, we will observe that the water gradually rises up the filter paper strip
by the capillary action.
 As the water moves up the paper, it takes a long the dyes present in the ink.
 The dye which is more soluble in water dissolves first, rises faster and produces a
coloured spot on the paper at a higher position.
 The less soluble dye is dissolve a little later, rise slowly and form coloured spot at
lower heights.
 In this way, all the dyes present in the blue ink gets separated.
 We can do this activity, with different tinges and obtain beautiful results.
Applications:
 It is useful in the separation of colours of dyes and natural substances.
 It is used in the separation of drugs from blood.
 It is often used to separate the pigments from natural colours.
Simple Distillation:
It is used for liquids, which:
 Are stable at their boiling point and do not undergo decomposition.
 Contain non-volatile impurities.
 Contain a mixture of two or more miscible liquids provided that their boiling points
differ by 30-50 K.
 Separation of mixture of acetone and water by simple distillation.
Separation of Miscible Liquids:

 Different separation techniques are used for separating components of different
types of mixtures.
 A mixture of two miscible liquids can be separated by a method called Distillation.
 Distillation is the process of separating miscible components of a mixture that do not
decompose on boiling and have sufficient difference (not less than 30˚C) in their
Boiling points.
 This process involves heating the liquid until it boils; and then collecting and cooling
the vapours formed during the process.
 The separation of liquid is usually achieved at their respective boiling points.
 The more volatile component of the mixture first vaporises at its boiling point and
then condenses in the condenser.
 While the other component is left behind in the distillation flask.
 Thus, the separation of the mixture is completed.
 We can separate a mixture of acetone and water by distillation.
 Take the mixture of Acetone and Water in a distillation flask.
 Fit it with the thermometer, and a distillation assembly.
 Now, heat this mixture slowly and observe carefully how the temperature is
increasing in the thermometer.
 As the temperature rises to 57˚C which is the boiling point of pure Acetone, the
vapours of Acetone are formed and they start to condense in the condenser.
 This acetone can be collected from the condenser as Liquid.
 We can notice that water is left behind in the distillation flask.
 There are several important applications of distillation as well.
Application:
 Distillation is used in food processing to produce distilled beverages.
 On a large-scale distillation is widely used in petroleum refineries, petrochemical and
natural gas processing plants.
 It is also used to separate the mixture of organic solvents like Ether (308 K) and
Toluene (384 K), Hexane (342 K) and Toluene (384 K), Chloroform (334.35 K) and
Aniline (457.28 K), and so on.
Fractional Distillation:
 Suppose a liquid (say m) contains liquid A and liquid B.
 Boiling Point (B.P.) of liquid A – B.P. of liquid B ≤ 25 K
 Simple distillation cannot be used to separate the liquids A and B.
 The technique of fractional distillation is used in such cases.
 In this technique,
o The vapours of a liquid mixture are passed through a fractionating
column before condensation.
o The fractionating column is fitted over the mouth of the round bottom flask.
o A simple fractionating column is a tube packed with the glass beads.
 Fractionating column:
o Simple packed column with Glass beads.
o The beaks provide surface for the vapours to cool and condense repeatedly.
Fractional Distillation of Air:

Air is a mixture of different gases, like nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, etc.
Air

Compress and cool by increasing and decreasing temperature

Liquid Air

Allow to warm up slowly in fractional column

Gases get separated at different heights depending upon their boiling points

Oxygen Nitrogen Argon
Boiling Point (K) 90 K 77 K 87 K
% Air by Volume 20.9 78.1 0.9
Oxygen gas forms the liquid first as its boiling point is relatively higher.
Fractional Distillation of Water:

To ensure the proper and uninterrupted supply of potable water in cities, there is a
need for an effective water purification system.
Drinking Water Supply in City:
 In cities, drinking water is supplied by water works. For water works, the source of
water is usually a river or lake, near the city.
 The water obtained from these sources is not fit for drinking because it contains
dissolved solids, mud and disease causing micro-organisms.
 So, water purifying industries, first make the water fit for drinking and then supply it
to various homes.
 The water is collected from a reservoir (can be river or lake), then, it passes through
many tanks and undergoes many cleaning processes before it is distributed to
homes.
 The water for city supply is made fit for drinking by:
o Sedimentation
o Loading
o Filtration
o Chlorination
Crystallisation:
 It is used to separate pure solid from its solution.
 It is based on the fact that when the solution of a substance is allowed to evaporate,
only the crystals of the pure substance are formed leaving behind the impurities in
the solution.
 In this method, the saturated solution of a substance is allowed to evaporate slowly.
The liquid evaporates leaving behind the pure solid.
 E.g., Separation of sugar from sugar solution.
Points to Remember:
 Crystallisation is a better technique than evaporation because some solids
decompose on heating due to dryness.
o E.g., sugar chars on heating.
 Some impurities may remain dissolved in the solution even after filtration. On
evaporation these contaminate the solid.
Physical and Chemical Changes:
 Every sunset is followed by sunrise. Nothing is permanent…..In fact change is the
law of nature.
 We made toy aeroplanes by folding paper. We had lot of fun flying this plane.
Physical Changes:
 No new substance is formed.
 Temporary change takes place.
 Only the physical properties, like state, shape and size change during physical
change.
 Chemical nature and composition of the substances remain the same.
 Mass of substances remain the same during the physical changes.
 Easily reversed by reversing the conditions.
 E.g., Conversion of state, evaporation of water, mixing together of oil and water,
melting of ice, growing of bulb, stretching of rubber band, boiling of water.
Chemical Changes:
 Permanent changes.
 One or more new substance is formed.
 Chemical nature and composition of the substances are changed.
 Mass of the substances changes.
 Heat is either evolved or absorbed during chemical change.
 E.g., Burning of magnesium ribbon in air, reaction between an acid and a base,
growing of child, blooming of flower, rusting of iron, burning of paper, ripening of
tomatoes.
Changes Can be reversed Type of Change
Milk to curd No Chemical changes
Blowing the balloon Yes Physical changes
Grain to flour No Chemical changes
Child to adult No Chemical changes
Cold water to hot water Yes Physical changes
Solid chocolate to melted Physical changes
Yes
chocolate
Physical and chemical changes around us:
Physical Changes:
 Planting the trees.
 Making clothes wet in air.
 Sharpening the pencil.
 Making toys with clay.
 Sewing of a sweater.
 Loosening an old sweater to make it fit.
Chemical Changes:
 Washing of clothes.
 Rusting of coins.
 Frying a food.
 Photosynthesis.
 Making pop-corn.
 Rotting of banana.
 Burning of wood.
 Keeping mehandi.
Some Other Methods to Separate Mixture of Solids and
Liquids:
Sedimentation:
 The process by which the heavier particles of insoluble solid settle down in a liquid is
known as Sedimentation.
 The particles that settle down are known as sediments. The clear liquid standing is
known as the supernatant liquid.
Decantation:
 Decantation is a process for the separation of mixtures, by removing a top layer of
liquid from which a precipitate has settled.
 Example: In case of red wine, the wine is decanted from the potassium bitartrate
crystals.

Chapter-1 Matter in Our Surroundings

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Chapter-1 Matter in Our Surroundings

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Chapter-1 Matter in our surroundings

 An atom is the smallest unit of any form of matter.

 Intermolecular space is the space between the molecules.

 The constant movement of particles is called as Kinetic energy.

 Intermixing of particles of two different types of matter on their own is called

 Movement of particles increases on increasing the temperature i.e., the particles

Fusion (Solid  Liquid):

Latent heat of fusion Latent heat of vapourisation

Bose-Einstein Condensate Solid Liquid Gas Plasma

Chapter-3 Atoms and Molecules

Law of Conservation of Mass Law of Constant Proportions

Law of Constant Proportions:

From these two experiments we can see that

Hence, the mass of Mg in 30 g of MgCO3 is 8.58 g, the mass of C in 30 g of MgCO3 is

Dalton’s Symbols of Elements Modern Symbols of Elements

How does an atom exist?

4. Write them as subscript.

4. Write them as subscript.

4. Write them as subscript.

4. Write them as subscript.

4. Write them as subscript.

4. Write them as subscript.

4. Write them as subscript.

4. Write them as subscript.

Gram Atomic Mass:

Gram Molecular Mass:

Gram molecular mass of the

Proton (p+) Neutron (n0) Electron (e-1)

Dalton’s Atomic Model:

Origin of Anode Rays:

mercury gas becomes conducting and a coloured green glow is observed.

Observations of the experiment:

 He placed a piece of Polonium in an Evacuated chamber.

Neon (10) K L Argon (18) K L M

Metals Solutions Colloids

Properties of Homogeneous Mixture:

 A 20 % (w/v) solution of sodium chloride means that 20 g of sodium chloride is

 Its components can be separated by filtration.

Sublimation : a separation technique:

Absorption Chromatography Partition chromatography

Thin layer chromatography Paper

 Paper chromatography is used to analyse the presence of different colours in a dye

Separation of Miscible Liquids:

Fractional Distillation of Air:

Fractional Distillation of Water:

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