Pre-AP States of Matter

Chapter 10
States of Matter
Sometimes called
phases of matter
Solid
Liquid
Gas
 Kinetic Theory
All matter consists of tiny particles
that are in constant motion (have
kinetic energy)
Kinetic Energy (KE) of Phases
Solid particles: low KE
Liquid particles: more KE than
a solid, but less than a gas
Gas particles: high KE
Kinetic Energy of Phases
Solid particles: vibrate in fixed positions
Liquid particles: not in fixed positions like
solids because there is more movement
between particles
Gas particles: in continuous, rapid,
random motion Solid motion
Volume & Shapes of Phases
Solids: definite volume and shape because of low
level of movement between particles
Liquids : definite volume but no definite shape
because they tend to flow or glide past each other
Gases : no definite volume or shape because of the
large amount of kinetic energy they possess
Intermolecular Forces
Forces of attraction that hold nearby
molecules together – they are NOT bonds
Solids: high, strong IM forces of attraction
resulting in rigid structures.
Liquids: IM forces are less than solids but
greater than in gases.
Gases: no significant IM forces present unless
put under extreme pressure or temperature
conditions where they will not behave as an
ideal gas.
Spacing Between Particles
Solids: almost no space, high density
(with the exception of ice)

Liquids: small spaces between the

particles, high density, but usually
lower than the density of a solid

Gases: molecules are far apart from

one another with large amounts of
space between them, low density, and
high compressibility is possible due to
the large spacing between particles
Unique Properties of a Solid
There are two classifications for solid matter either:

1. Crystalline 2. Amorphous
Lets Talk about Crystalline solids first.
There are 4 Sub-Categories or Types of Crystalline Matter:
1. Ionic (example: NaCl)
2. Metallic (example: Cu)
3. Network Covalent (example: diamonds and graphite)
Theses are LARGE repeating carbon molecules. So large
they are the strongest out of all 4 of these.

4. Molecular Covalent (H2O)

Properties of Crystalline Solids
Crystal Structure is the 3-D arrangement
of the particles
Unit Cell (or formula unit) is the smallest
unit that shows crystal structure
Crystal Lattice contains many unit cells

-Molecules have a repeating or set pattern

-Cleave (break) to form a smaller version of
the repeating pattern
Properties of Amorphous Solids
If the cooling rate is faster than the rate at
which particles can organize into a more
favorable crystalline state, then an
amorphous solid will be formed => no shape
or pattern between bonded molecules
Known as the supercooled liquids because
they freeze in midflow.
Ex: glass and plastics, rubber,
gels and ooblic.
How to make ooblic and videos
 Melting Point of Solids
Specific temperature at which crystalline
solids become liquids.

Glass Transition Temperature

• Temperature at which amorphous solids
become brittle.
Unique Properties of a Liquid
Least common state of matter
High surface tension
Extra attraction on the surface of a liquid to molecules
within the liquid
Ex: H O bugs walk on water
2
Cohesion – water molecules attracted to other
water molecules
Adhesion – water molecules attracted to other
materials
Surface Tension of Water
surface tension in space
 Properties of Liquids Activities
Objective: To determine which liquid has the most surface tension.
Get three beakers and three droppers/pipettes. Fill one beaker with water,
one filled with hydrogen peroxide, and one filled with cooking oil. Get three
pennies. You are not using your mouth or drinking any of these liquids.

1. Using a dropper or straw to draw up liquid and trap with your finger. See
how many drops of water you can place on single penny, write observations.
(You aren’t sucking on the straw)
2. Using dropper or straw to see how many drops of hydrogen peroxide you can
place on single penny, write observations. (You aren’t sucking on the straw)
3. Using dropper or straw to see how many drops of cooking oil you can place
on single penny, write observations. (You aren’t sucking on the straw)

CLEAN UP LAB STATION before leaving so the next hour can use the equipment.
Meniscus
A concave meniscus
occurs when the
adhesive forces are
greater than the cohesive
forces.
A convex meniscus
occurs when the
cohesive forces are
greater than the adhesive
forces.
Capillary Action
Spontaneous rising of a liquid in a narrow tube.
Height of the column is dependent on where
equilibrium is reached between the weight of the
column of liquid plus the cohesive and adhesive
forces.
Important in water movement in trees.
Viscosity:
A liquid’s resistance to flow. Think about syrup vs.
water. Syrup has high viscosity.

Increases:
o With greater intermolecular forces
o With longer and more complex molecules because of
entanglement
o With decreases in temperature
Unique Properties of a Gas
Compression – volume of gas can be
greatly decreased
Expansion – take shape of container
Low density – 1/1000 of a liquid or solid
Fluidity – no IM forces between particles
allow particles to glide easily past one
another
 Pre-AP
Section 12.3
Change of State
Phases of Matter
Sometimes called
states of matter
Solid
Liquid
Gas
A change from one phase to another can involve
Melting → Freezing is going from a liquid to solid.
Freezing → Melting is going from a solid to a liquid.
Vaporization → Condensation is going from a liquid to a gas.
Condensation → Vaporization is going from a gas to a liquid.
Sublimation → Deposition. Going from a gas to a solid,
skipping the liquid phase. Example of this is if in the winter
you breathe on the window of your car and it freezes to ice.
Deposition → Sublimation.
Going from a solid to a gas, skipping the liquid phase. Dry ice
is an example of this.
https://www.pbs.org/video/the-magic-of-dry-ice-bagytb/
Endothermic vs Exothermic
Endothermic is when you put energy into a reaction.

Exothermic is when energy is released from a reaction

 Phase Changes
Which are Endothermic?
Which are Exothermic?

Liquid → Solid
Exothermic
Gas → Liquid
Exothermic
Gas→ Solid
Exothermic
 Phase Changes
Which are Endothermic?
Which are Exothermic?

Solid → Liquid
Endothermic
Liquid → Gas
Endothermic
Solid → Gas
Endothermic
Equilibrium Vapor Pressure
The pressure exerted by a vapor in a closed system
with its corresponding liquid.
Vapor Pressure increases with Temperature

We will return to this concept later in this unit…

Melting Point
The temperature where the liquid and solid have
identical vapor pressures
Boiling Point
Boiling point: when the temperature of a liquid is high
enough that its equilibrium vapor pressure is the same as
the atmospheric pressure
Normal boiling point: temp. at whichsubstance boils at 1
atm of pressure. Yes this could also be 101.3 Kpa, 760 torr
or 760 mm Hg. Remember gas laws?
Mainly we say at 1 atm.

Normal melting point: temp. at which substance melts at

1 atm of pressure and yes that could be 101.3 Kpa, 760
torr or 760 mm Hg.
 Phase Change Diagrams
-These are Pressure and Temperature graphs show the three
phases of a substance
Phase Change Diagram-
Molecular Level

-Triple point: T – point

where all three phases coexist
triple point video
Critical point: C – point
where phase boundary no
longer exists between liquid
and vapor. You can’t change the
pressure and get it back to a liquid.
Phase Diagrams
chlorine supercritical
Normal boiling point: temp. at which substance boils at 1 atm of
pressure

Normal melting point: temp. at which substance melts at 1 atm

of pressure
Phase Diagram for Water
Phase diagram of CO2
Draw your own phase
diagram
On a separate piece of paper
1. Make a phase diagram with the following information:
 Normal freezing point is 20°C and 1 atm, the normal boiling
point is 60°C and 1 atm, the triple point is at 0.5 atm and 25°C
and the critical point is 90°C and 1.5 atm.

2. Title your diagram. Label both axes. Label all four of

the above points, label the three phases, shade in the
three phases with different colors
Answer the following questions:
What is the state of matter at 1.2 atm and 10°C?
What is the state of matter at 1.2 atm and 40°C?
What would happen if you stayed at 40°C, but
lowered the pressure to 0.1 atm?
Which states of matter would you go through if
you started at 0.2 atm and 15°C and increased your
pressure to 1.5 atm while staying at 15°C?
Heating Curve
Heating Curve For Water
Molar Heat Calculations
Molar Heat of Vaporization: is the energy required
to vaporize one mole of a liquid.
Molar Heat of Fusion: is the energy required to melt
one mole of a solid.

These values vary from one substance to another.

 E = (moles) x (molar heat of fusion) or
 E = n x Hfusion
 E = (moles) x (molar heat of vaporization) or
 E = n x Hvaporization
Heating Curve For Water
Molar Heats
Units are kJ/mol
Can be used as conversion factor
Water’s Molar Heats
Heat of Fusion
6.008 kJ/mol of H2O
Heat of Vaporization
40.79 kJ/mol of H2O
Example 1:
How many grams of ice can be melted by 28.7 kJ of
heat?
E = (moles) x (molar heat of fusion)

28.7 kJ = n 6.008 kJ/mol

n = 4.78 moles

4.78 moles x 18.02 grams water

= 86.1 g H2O
1 mole
Try These
Example 2.
How much heat must be released to freeze 32.90 g of water?
10.97 kJ
E = (moles) x (molar heat of fusion)

Example 3.
How many moles of water can be vaporized by 135 kJ?
3.31 mol
E = (moles) x (molar heat of vaporization)
Calculations Using Specific Heat, Cp
Energy = (mass)(specific heat)(change in temp)
Or E = (m)(Cp)(ΔT)

Specific heat, Cp, is the amount of energy required

to raise the temperature of 1 gram of substance
by 1°C
Depending on which incline you are on use:
o Specific heat of water is 4.18 J/(g·°C)
o Specific heat for ice is 2.03 J/(g·°C)
o Specific heat of steam is 2.01 J /(g·°C)
Heating Curve For Water
Example Problem #1 on page 13

1.  What amount of heat is required to raise the

temperature of 85.9 g of ice from -22°C to 0°C ?  The
specific heat of ice is 2.03 J/g°C.

E= 85.9 g ice 2.03J 22°C = 3836 J  3.84 kJ

g°C

E = (85.9g ice)(2.03J/g°C)(22°C) = 3836J  3.84 kJ

Example Problem #2 on page 13

2.  What amount of heat is required to increase the

temperature of 75.0 g of water from 0°C to 36°C?  The
specific heat of water is 4.18 J/g°C. (#2 on p.9)

E= 75.0 g water 4.18J 36°C = 11286 J  11.3 kJ

g°C
E = (75.0g water)(4.18 J/g°C)(36°C) = 11286J  11.3 kJ
Notes: Calculate Energy of an ENTIRE heating Curve (do
on smartboard)

Calculate the amount of energy required to change a phase (b-

solid to liquid, d- liquid to gas) for 22g H2O

Calculate the amount of energy required to heat a phase (a -

solid, c - liquid, or e - gas) for 22g H2O
Sample Phase Diagram Calculations
How much energy (in kJ) is required to heat 35 g of ice
starting at -20°C to 120°C? (Example # 7 page 15)
Use these equations:
E = (m)(Cp)(ΔT) for solid, liquid and gas

E = (mass)(molar mass)(Hfusion)

E = (mass)(molar mass)(Hvaporization)
 How much energy (in kJ) is required to heat 35 g of ice starting at -20.°C to
120.°C?
 E = (m)(Cp)(ΔT) at inclines
 E = n x Hfusion and E = n x Hvaporization at plateaus
1. Solid incline E = (35g)(2.03J/g°C)(20.°C) = 1421 J = 1.4 kJ

2. Melting plateau (35g H2O) x 1 mol H2O = 1.94 moles H2O

18.02 g H2O
E = 1.94 moles x 6.008 kJ = 12 kJ
1 mole H2O

3. Liquid incline E = (35g)(4.18J/g°C)(100.°C) = 14630 J = 15 kJ

4. Boiling plateau E = 1.94 mole H2O x 40.79 kJ/mol = 79 kJ

5. Gas incline E = (35g)(2.01J/g°C)(20.0°C) = 1407 J = 1.4 kJ

E = 1.4 kJ + 12 kJ + 15 kJ + 79 kJ +1.4 kJ = 108.8 = 109 kJ

How much energy (in kJ) is required to melt 5 g of ice starting at -35°C to 115°C?
(Example # 10 page 15)
 E = (m)(Cp)(ΔT) at inclines
 E = n x Hfusion and E = n x Hvaporization at plateaus
1. Solid incline E = (5g)(2.03J/g°C)(35.°C) = 355 J = 0.355 kJ

2. Melting plateau (5 g H2O) x 1 mol H2O = 0.277 moles H2O

18.02 g H2O
E = 0.277 moles x 6.008 kJ = 1.67 kJ
1 mole H2O

3. Liquid incline E = (5g)(4.18J/g°C)(100.°C) = 2090 J = 2.09 kJ

4. Boiling plateau E = 0.277 moles H2O x 40.79 kJ/mol = 11.3 kJ

5. Gas incline E = (5g)(2.01J/g°C)(15.0°C) = 150.8 J = 0.151 kJ

E = 0.355 kJ + 1.67 kJ + 2.09 kJ + 11.3 kJ + 0.151 kJ = 15.6 kJ

#9 on page 15
What is the total energy of a system where 3.500 liters of water is heated from -
30°C to 105°C? The density of water is 1 g/mL.

Sketch a phase change diagram for this information and show all work.
Supercooled Liquids
Occurs when a liquid is placed in a temperature that is
below its freezing point, but not long enough for it to
attain enough order to form a solid. If it is a pure
enough substance it will have a hard time finding
“nucleation sites” and won’t freeze very well. We can
force it to freeze by “banging it” or disturbing the
molecules and forcing them to get closer to one
another.
i.e. undisturbed very pure water bottle in a freezer for
a couple of hours.
supercooled water
 Evaporation vs. Boiling
Evaporation occurs only at the surface of a liquid. The vapor pressure
is < the atmospheric pressure. The molecules don’t all have the same
amount of energy. Only a few on the surface.

Boiling occurs when the temperature of a liquid is high enough that its
vapor pressure = atmospheric pressure. Also there needs to be
enough energy to overcome attractive forces in liquids.
Why does water boil faster at
high elevation?
Water boils at a lower pressure at a higher elevation
because there isn’t as much pressure exerted on it, as
there is at sea level so the molecules can escape from
their liquid to gas phase easier.
Boiling Water at Elevation

Everest
Evaporation
A type of vaporization that occurs only at the surface
of a liquid
Liquid particles that reach the surface with enough
energy will break free of the attractive forces to form a
gas
Vapor
Gas form of a substance present under conditions where
the substance usually exists as a solid or liquid phase

Behavior of a Liquid in a Closed Container:

a) Initially b) at Equilibrium
Equilibrium
A condition in which two opposing changes occur at equal
rates
Equilibrium Vapor Pressure is the pressure exerted by a
vapor in a closed system with its corresponding liquid or
solid.
Reaching Equilibrium

When rates of condensation equal rates of evaporation,

equilibrium vapor pressure is reached
Measuring Vapor Pressure
Types of Intermolecular forces
Hydrogen Bonding Dipole dipole forces

London Dispersion
Intermolecular Forces
The weaker the intermolecular forces the easier it will
vaporize and create high vapor pressure.

The stronger the intermolecular forces the harder it will

vaporize and will create low vapor pressure.
Vapor Pressure
At a given temperature
Vapor pressure decreases as intermolecular forces
increase (London Dispersion Forces < Dipole-Dipole
Interaction < Ion-Dipole Interaction < Hydrogen
Bonding )
Vapor pressure decreases as the size of the gas
particles increase (because of greater London
Dispersion forces)
Size of Particles Can Effect Vapor Pressure

Propane

Pentane
If I only heat the water flask
up what happens to the
vapor pressure?
Pentane because it only had
LDF and weaker LDF will
have an increase in vapor
pressure.
Methanol Acetone

Dipole dipole and

LDF
One site with
hydrogen bonding

Water
and the other part
is lDF

Two sites with

hydrogen
Which one of these will bonding

evaporate first? Why?

Volatile vs Nonvolatile Liquids

Volatile liquids Nonvolatile liquids

Evaporate readily Do not evaporate readily
Weak attractive Strong attractive
(intermolecular) forces (intermolecular) forces
Nonpolar molecules Polar molecules
Acetone Water
Gasoline Corn Syrup
Vapor Pressure of Different Liquids at Different Temperatures
Vapor Pressure and Temperature
Vaporization curves of most liquids have similar shape
Vapor pressure increases with increases in temperature
Clausius-Clapeyron Equation
The Clausius-Clapeyron equation allows us to
estimate the vapor pressure at another temperature, if
the vapor pressure is known at some temperature, and
if the enthalpy of vaporization is known.
Vapor Pressure Natural log of Vapor Pressure
vs. Temperature vs. 1/Temperature
Clausius-Clapeyron Equation
Pvap.T1 Δ Hvap 1 1
ln = -
Pvap.T2 R T2 T1

• Pvap is the vapor pressure

• Δ Hvap is the molar heat of vaporization (usually in kJ)
• R is the ideal gas law constant 8.314 J /mol K
• T should be in kelvin
• If you are solving for P, it is easiest to make your
unknown value “P1”
 Example 1
The heat of vaporization (Δ Hvap) of propanol is 47.2 kJ/mol.
The vapor pressure of propanol is 10.0 torr at 14.7 °C.
Calculate the vapor pressure at 52.8 °C.
Pvap.T1 Δ Hvap 1 1
ln = -
Pvap.T2 R T2 T1

See work on next slide…

 Example 1 cont.
 The heat of vaporization (Δ Hvap) of propanol is 47.2 kJ/mol. The vapor
pressure of propanol is 10.0 torr at 14.7 °C. Calculate the vapor pressure at
52.8 °C.

10.0 torr 47200 1 1

ln = - 288
Pvap.T2 8.31 326
4
10.0 torr 5677 -4.0474 x10 -4
ln =
Pvap.T2
Raise both sides to the exponent. This will cancel the Ln
on the left. So it becomes
10.0 torr e^-2.29769
= and solve for P = 101 torr
Pvap.T2
Check In…
We can try a few more not in your packet or move on
to the schoology assessment. How do you feel with
this concept?
A. one more
B. more on
Example 2- not in notes
 The vapor pressure of water is 1.00 atm at 373 K, and the heat of
vaporization is 40.7 kJ/mol. Estimate the vapor pressure at temperature 363
K.

0.697 atm
Example 3- not in notes
 The molar heat of vaporization is 44.0 kJ/mol. The vapor pressure of water
at 298 K is 23.8 mmHg. At what temperature is the vapor pressure of water
1075 mmHg?

379 K
Sample 4 - not in notes
At 50.14 K a substance has a vapor pressure of 258.9 torr.
Calculate its heat of vaporization in kJ/mol it if has a
vapor pressure of 161.2 torr at 277.5 K.

-0.241 kJ/mol
Review…can you draw water
and the hydrogen bonds that
form??? Discuss.
Review…can you explain why a
heating curve plateaus…discuss