NOTES GR 10

ABDELQADER BASHA CHEMISTRY O-LEVEL
Topics:
I. States of matter: Solids, Liquids, and Gases
II. Heating and cooling curve of water
III. Kinetic theory of matter
IV. Diffusion
V. Pure substances and impurities
1
I. States of matter
 Major differences between solids, liquids and gases are:

Solid Liquid Gas
Shape Fixed Take the shape of the Not fixed

container
Volume Fixed Fixed Not fixed
Intermolecular Very strong Strong Very weak

forces
Movement Vibrate in their fixed Slide past each other Random motion
position
Distance Stick to each other Close to each other Far apart
Arrangement
(you draw it)
 Conversion between the states of matter

Melting: the change of state from solid to liquid, it occurs at the melting point
Freezing: the change of state from liquid to solid, it occurs at the freezing point.
Boiling: the change of state from liquid to gas, it occurs at the boiling point.
Evaporation: the change at the surface of a liquid into gas, it occurs at any temperature.
Condensation: the change of state from gas to liquid, it occurs at the condensation point.
Sublimation: the change of state from solid to gas directly.
2
Deposition: the change of state from gas to solid directly.
Example: Dry ice
 What is dry ice?

___________________________________________________________
 Give one example of the use of dry ice
___________________________________________________________
For a particular substance its melting point is the same as its freezing point, also the boiling
point is the same as its condensation point.
Example: water
Water can exist in the 3 states: solid (ice), liquid (water), gas (water vapour/steam).
The melting point of ice is the same as the freezing point of water, 0ºC.
The boiling point of water is the same as the condensation point of steam, 100 ºC.
 Give one reason why a puddle of rain dries up in the sun.

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
 Which has strong intermolecular forces substance A which has melting point at 0ºC or
substance B that has melting point at -10ºC. Explain your answer
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
II. Heating and cooling curve of water
3
1. Heating curve of water
Look at the graph below. It shows the temperature change as an ice block is steadily heated.
First, the ice warms up till it reaches its melting point where the particles gain more energy
and vibrate more to break away from their positions. The solid turns into liquid while the
temperature stays the same at 0ºC until all the ice has melted.
Second, the water gets warmer and its temperature rises until it reaches its boiling point
where the particles gain more energy to break the attractive forces between them so they
move freely and far apart. The liquid turns into gas while the temperature stays the same at
100ºC until all the water has boiled.
2. Cooling curve of water
4
The previous changes can be reversed by cooling (removing heat).
As a gas cools, its particles lose energy and slow down. When they collide they do not have
enough energy to bounce back, so they stay close to each other and form a liquid.
More cooling, the liquid particles turn to solid.
Look at the graph below
Heating and Cooling Curve Questions
5
1 The solid and liquid phases of water can exist in a state of equilibrium at 1 atmosphere
of pressure and a temperature of:
(a) 0oC (b) 100oC (c) 273oC (d) 373oC
2 The table below shows the normal boiling point of four compounds.
Which compound has the strongest intermolecular forces?
(a) HF(l) (b) CH3Cl(l) (c) CH3F(l) (d) HCl(l)
3 A sample of water is heated from a liquid at 40oC to a gas at 110oC.
a) On the heating curve diagram provided above, label each of the following regions:
Liquid, only
Gas, only
Phase change
6
b) For section QR of the graph, state what is happening to the water molecules as heat is
added.
__________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
c) For section RS of the graph, state what is happening to the water molecules as heat is
added.
__________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
4 The graph below represents the heating curve of a substance that starts as a solid
below its freezing point.
 What is the melting point of this substance?
a) 30oC
b) 55oC
c) 90oC
d) 120oC
7
III. Kinetic theory of matter
It states that all matter is made up of particles. These particles vibrate with solids having the
smallest amount of vibration and gases having the most.
Particles can be atoms, molecules, or ions.
Evidence for kinetic theory is diffusion
IV. Diffusion
It is the spontaneous movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of

low concentration.
Diffusion of gas is much faster than diffusion of liquid, so it is used as an evidence of the
kinetic theory.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1Jtw8g795Us
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N9OL6AwyM5I
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y8j6peP5nNg
 Try the following experiment
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CldadkIuaC4
Observation:
Diffusion in warm water is faster than in cold water
Conclusion:
The warmer the particles, they have more energy, the faster they diffuse.
8
Brownian motion: the apparent random movement of small particles.
It was observed by the scientist Robert Brown in the 19th century when pollen grains were
observed to move in a random pattern on a water droplet.
It is explained by the collision of water molecules with the pollen in a random pattern of
collision.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4m5JnJBq2AU
 Try the following experiment
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hy-clLi8gHg
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UDj7BXA1CHU
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VDOWS_JBCfw
 Diffusion of gases is affected by 2 factors

1. the mass of the particles
2. The temperature
9
The mass of the particles
Try the following experiment for the reaction between HCl and NH3
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-ZUMC3tEL0M
 Calculate the molecular mass for HCl and NH3
(HCl) Mr= (NH3) Mr=
 Which gas has a higher molar mass? _________

 Which gas will diffuse faster? Give reason
______________________________________________________________________
Conclusion:
The lower the mass of the

particles, the faster the
gas will diffuse
Temperature
The higher the temperature is, the faster the diffusion of the gas.
When a gas is heated, the particles absorb heat energy and move faster. They collide with
more energy and bounce farther away, so the gas diffuses faster.
10
V. Pure substances and impurities
A pure substance has no particles of any other substance mixed with it.
Tap water contains small amounts of many different particles (Ca2+ , Cl ).¯¯
Distilled water is much purer, but not 100% pure, it has gas particles from the air dissolved
in it.
Impurity: is any unwanted substance mixed with the substance you want.
Test of purity
There are many tests to check the purity of a substance for example melting or boiling.
Example: water boils at 100 oC.
 What do you understand if you boil a sample of water and it is boiled above100 oC?
________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
 Each pure substance has a definite melting point and (mp) and boiling point (bp)
 When a substance contains an impurity:
a) Its melting point decreases ↓ and its boiling point increases ↑
b) It melts and boils over a range of temperatures, not sharply.
 The more impurity it has, the bigger the change in the mp and bp, and the wider the
temperature range over which melting and boiling occur.
 Give a reason why do people scatter salt on the snow in the roads during winter
________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
Past paper questions on unit 1

11
3 (a) A small amount of liquid bromine is added to a container which is then sealed.
Br2(l) → Br2(g)
Use the ideas of the Kinetic Theory to explain why, after about an hour, the bromine molecules
have spread uniformly to occupy the whole container.
..................................................................................................................................... [3]
(b) The diagrams below show simple experiments on the speed of diffusion of gases.
Complete the following explanations. Diagram 1 has been done for you.
12
Diagram 1
There is air inside and outside the porous pot so the rate of diffusion of air into the pot is the same
as the rate of diffusion of air out of the pot. The pressure inside and outside the pot is the same so
the coloured liquid is at the same level on each side of the tube.
Diagram 2
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................... [3]
Diagram 3
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................... [3]
[Total: 9]
[Cambridge IGCSE 0620/33/NOV/2012]
2 Compound X is a colourless liquid at room temperature.
13
(a) A sample of pure X was slowly heated from –5.0 °C, which is below its melting point, to 90 °C,
which is above its boiling point. Its temperature is measured every minute and the results are
represented on the graph.
(i) Complete the equation for the equilibrium present in the region BC.
X(s) ………………….. [1]
(ii) What is the significance of temperature t °C?
....................................................................................................................................... [1]
(iii) What is the physical state of compound X in the region EF?
....................................................................................................................................... [1]
(iv) What would be the difference in the region BC if an impure sample of X had been used?
....................................................................................................................................... [1]
[Cambridge IGCSE 0620/33/NOV/2014]
3 (a) Different gases diffuse at different speeds.
14
(i) What is meant by the term diffusion?
.............................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................... [1]
(ii) What property of a gas molecule affects the speed at which it diffuses?
....................................................................................................................................... [1]
(b) Helium is a gas used to fill balloons. It is present in the air in very small quantities. Diffusion can be
used to separate it from the air.
Air at 1000 °C is on one side of a porous barrier. The air which passes through the barrier has a
larger amount of helium in it.
(i) Why does the air on the other side of the barrier contain more helium?
....................................................................................................................................... [1]
(ii) Why is it an advantage to have the air at a high temperature?
.............................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................... [1]
(c) Most helium is obtained from natural gas found in the USA. Natural gas contains methane and 7%
helium. One possible way to obtain the helium would be to burn the methane.
(iii) Suggest another method, other than diffusion, by which helium could be separated from the
mixture of gases in natural gas.
....................................................................................................................................... [1]
[Cambridge IGCSE 0620/31/MAY/2014]
15
Topics:
1) Apparatuses used in the lab
2) Hazard symbols
3) Mixtures
4) Solutions
5) Separation techniques
16
I. Apparatuses used in the lab
Combustion Digital U-tube

spoon balance
17
Round bottom flask
Flat bottom flask
Safety glasses
(goggles)
18
II. Hazard symbols
Symbol Indication Explanation

Explosive May explode if ignited in air or
exposed to heat.
Oxidizing May produce much heat as they

react with other materials.
Ex: KMnO4 , K2Cr2O7
Highly May easily catch fire in a
flammable laboratory under normal
conditions.
Ex:H2, C2H6, ethanol
Toxic Poisonous and can cause death.
Ex: Cl2, Br2, methanol
Harmful Cause pain and discomfort.

Ex: CuSO4, BaCl2
Corrosive Destroy living tissues, damage

eyes and burn skin.
Ex: Conc. H2SO4, Conc. HNO3
Irritant Can cause reddening or

blistering of the skin. Dry
powder may cause coughing
Ex: CuCO3, CaCl2
Radioactive The radioactive chemicals used
in schools have low activity.
They are normally used by
teachers only, for
demonstrations.
Mixtures
A mixture contains two or more substances that are mixed together physically, not
chemically combined.
19
Example: air is a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, and other gases.
 Give another example of mixtures and mention their components.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Solutions
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances.
 What does homogeneous mean?

______________________________________________________________________
Example: sea water, a solution of water and salt, the salt is evenly distributed throughout the
water.
 Give another example of a solution and mention its component.

________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
Any solution has two components:
1. Solute: the substance that dissolves.

2. Solvent: the liquid in which the solute dissolves
 Determine the solute and the solvent in the following examples
Example Solute Solvent
Sea water
Sugary water
 Concentration: the amount of solute (in gram or mole) that can dissolve in 1L of a
solvent.
 Dilute solution: a solution with small amount of solute in 1L of solution.
20
 Concentrated solution: a solution with small amount of solute in 1L of solution.
 Solubility: the maximum amount of solute that can dissolve in 100g water at a particular
temperature.
Solubility Curve
 What is the solubility of KNO3 at 60ºC? ______________
 What is the solubility of CuSO4.5H2O at 60ºC?______________
 Which salt has a higher solubility?
Use the solubility curve given below to answer the following questions
 What is the solubility of KClO3 at 70ºC?
21
 What will happen if a solution of KClO3 is cooled down from 70ºC to 30ºC?
 What is unique about Ce2(S04)3 ?
 Which salt has the highest solubility with heating?
There are many factors that can increase the solubility of solids in a liquid such as stirring
and heating.
 Mention other factors that can speed up the solubility of solids in a liquid
______________________________________________________________________
There are 3 types of solution based on the amount of the solute dissolved at a specific
temperature:
22
1. Unsaturated solution: that can dissolve more solute.

2. Saturated solution: that cannot dissolve any more solute at the specific temperature.
3. Supersaturated solution: that can dissolve more solute than the saturated solution by
increasing the temperature.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JQRIlS9lNdg
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d7Qge1QbcaE
The solution in which water is the solvent is called aqueous.
Water is not the only solvent; there are many other solvents that are used in industry.
Examples:
a) Ethanol that can dissolve glues, printing ink, also used in perfumes and aftershave.
b) Propanone that can dissolve grease and nail polish.
Separation techniques
Separation technique Used to separate

Filtration An insoluble solid from a liquid
Crystallization A solute from its solution
Evaporation A solute from its solution
Simple distillation A solvent from a solution

Fractional distillation Liquids from each other
Paper chromatography Different substances from a solution
Solid / Liquid mixture
I. Separation of insoluble solid from a liquid
There are 3 ways you can use to separate an insoluble solid from a liquid
23
1. Decanting: carefully pour the liquid in another container and leave behind the
undissolved solid. It is suitable for separating suspensions such as muddy water.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a0-JcyEVWpE
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZvxaFCR2-bY
2. Centrifugation:the mixture is spun at high speed in a centrifuge, the solid component

will deposit at the bottom of the centrifuge tube and the liquid part can be decanted.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OvnaH_uNRbs
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KEXWd3_fM94
3. Filtration: pour the solution on a filter paper; the solid particles will be trapped in the
filter paper (residue) while the liquid portion (filtrate) passes through.
Example: water and sand
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pFYG7jxjGHs
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OMZpzcItQkc
24
II. Separation of a soluble solid from salt solution
A. The solute is required
1. By evaporation:
To obtain salt from aqueous solution, you need to keep heating the solution to evaporate
the water. When there is only a little water left, the salt will start to appear. Heat carefully
until it is dry.
2. By crystallization:
Many soluble solids tend to be less soluble at lower temperatures, as the temperature
decreases the crystals start to form. This is the reason of crystallization.
Example: crystallization of copper (II) sulfate from the solution.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QdwKhbtzsug
25
a) Heat the solution to evaporate some of the water, the solution becomes concentrated
(saturated). (point of crystallization)
b) Let it to cool down, crystals will start to form.
c) Check that it is ready by placing a drop on a microscope slide; crystals will form quickly
on the cold glass.
d) As the temperatures falls, more crystals will form.
e) Remove the crystals by filtration. Rinse the crystals with distilled water.
f) Dry the crystals with a filter paper not in the oven to avoid water loss of crystallization.
B. The solvent is required
 Simple distillation:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gIMtFj2gPs8
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0IWy_hdgKJM
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eRafdvf1urQ
You can obtain water from a salt water solution.
26
a) Heat the solution in the flask, as it boils, water vapour rises into the condenser, leaving
the salt behind.
b) The condenser is cold so the water vapour condenses to water.
c) The water drips into the beaker (distilled water), it is almost pure.
 The bulb of the thermometer is placed at the top next to the side arm where the vapour
leaves to measure the boiling point of the liquid at atmospheric pressure.
 The condenser has two tubes, inner where the vapour passes through it, and outer where
the cooling water passes through it.
 The cooling water passes up the condenser opposite the vapour flow to ensure large and
permanent cold surface and condense all the vapour into liquid.
 Anti-bumping granules are added to the flask to prevent splashing the liquid as it smooth
the boiling.
Solid / Solid mixture

1. Separation based on magnetic properties:
by using electromagnet, you can separate iron materials that have magnetic properties
from other materials.
Example: iron and sulfur.
27
2. Separation based on differences in solubility (solvent extraction):

If you have two different solids, choose a solvent that can dissolve only one of them.
 Write the steps explaining how can you separate a mixture of salt and sand
a) put mixture in a beaker and add water, stir and heat gently till all the salt dissolves
b) filter the mixture, the sand will be residue is washed and dried, the salt solution is the
filtrate
c) evaporate the filtrate till dryness, salt is obtained.
 Why cannot you use water to separate salt and sugar?
______________________________________________________________________
 Which solvent can you use to separate them? And why?

_____________________________________________________________________
3. Sublimation: separate iodine and salt mixture. (ammonium chloride and salt)
a) Heat the mixture, iodine will sublime into a purple vapour directly
b) Iodine vapour will deposit (sublime) into a solid directly when it touches a cold
surface.
c) The salt stay behind in the tube, it does not sublime.
Liquid / Liquid mixture
Liquids can be miscible or immiscible.
 What is the difference between them? ______________________________
a) Separating miscible liquids: by fractional distillation
28
Fractional distillation: it separates miscible liquids with widely differing boiling points.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vRHk4bOivAk
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=86WY2mV9jiU
Example: ethanol and water.
1. Heat the mixture in the flask until 78ºC the ethanol begins to boil. Some water evaporates
too, so a mixture of ethanol and water vapour rises up the column.
2. The vapours condense on the glass beads in the column.
3. When the beads reach about 78ºC, ethanol vapour no longer condenses on them. Only
water vapour does, so water drips back into the flask and the ethanol vapour goes into the
condenser.
4. Ethanol vapour condenses, pure liquid ethanol drips into the beaker.
5. As the temperature rise above 78ºC, all the ethanol has gone and you can stop heating.
 The glass beads provide a large surface area for condensation
 Uses of fractional distillation:

 Separates pure oxygen and pure nitrogen from liquefied air
 Separates crude oil (petroleum) into fractions
 Separates alcohol to produce alcoholic drinks
Fractions: the different mixtures distil over different temperatures during fractional
distillation.
 Petroleum refining (crude oil):
29
1) Crude oil is preheated to 350 –

400 ̊C and pumped into the
base of the fractionating tower.
2) The vapour enters the tower
and rises up the column.
3) Different fractions will
condense at different levels.
4) The fraction with the lowest
Boiling Point will reach the top
and condense the first.
5) The fraction with the highest
Boiling point will be at the
bottom of the column and
condense the least
b) Separating immiscible liquids: by using separating funnel

Two liquids that are immiscible will create two layers, so separate them take the stopper off
and turn the tap on to run the denser liquid at the bottom of the funnel. The less dense liquid
will stay in the funnel.
30
IV. Chromatography
To separate different solutes dissolved in a solution.
Depends on the differences in:
1) The solubility of the solute in the solvent

2) The adsorption of the solute on the chromatography paper
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-XCPPB-sBFU
31
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uOhefwQBAbI
 Separation of a coloured mixture of substances

1) Draw a pencil line at the base (origin) of the chromatography paper, not pen as the pencil
is not soluble in water while ink is.
2) Put a drop of the ink at the base line.
3) Dip the paper in the solvent, make sure the solvent level is below the base line (to prevent
the dissolution of the ink drop down in the solvent)
4) Cover the beaker to prevent the evaporation of the solvent.
5) Leave the beaker until the solvent reaches the top of the paper (due to capillarity) and
draw the solvent front.
6) Remove the paper and leave it to dry.
 The dyes separate due to the differences in their solubility. The most soluble moves the
fastest up the paper.
 Solvent front: the maximum distance travelled by the solvent.
 Chromatogram: the chromatography paper with the coloured rings.
 Stationary phase is the paper and mobile phase is the solvent.
32
 Identification of substances
Paper chromatography can also be used to identify substances.
Example: a mixture X contains 3 pigments (red, blue, yellow) which are all soluble in
propanone.
1) Prepare concentrated solution of the mixture X and the three pigments (red, blue,
yellow) in propanone as shown in the figure below. Place a spot of each along a pencil
line on chromatography paper, label them.
You draw the pencil line because it is not soluble. (ink line is soluble)
2) Stand the paper in a little propanone, in a covered glass tank. The solvent rises up the
paper, when it is near the top, remove the paper.
3) The mixture X has separated into three spots of the same height of the red, blue and
yellow pigments.
Use of paper chromatography:
a) Identify a substance
b) Separate mixtures of substances
c) Purify a substance, by separating it from its impurities.
 Separation of substances in colourless mixture
33
Amino acids are colourless so you have to spray it with a locating agent to make the amino
acids to show up. After spraying, heat the paper in the oven for 10 minutes, the spots turn
purple, now you have a proper chromatogram.
 In another situation, the position can be located using UV light
Measuring the Rf value
The Rf value of a compound is always the same as long as the chromatography is

carried out in the same way, under the same conditions. Rf values can be used to
identify compounds from a chromatogram. You look at the Rf value table to identify
the sample
distance moved by the substance
Rf =
distance moved by the solvent
 Rf has no unit
 Rf is always less than 1, give a reason _____________________________________
 Extract a dye from a leaf (chlorophyll):

1) Crush a sample of a leaf using a pestle and a mortar
2) Dissolve it in suitable solvent to extract the dye.
3) Filter to remove the insoluble solid
4) Concentrate the solution over a water bath
5) Separate the dyes by paper chromatography.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jiPd5CkCkkU
34
Gas / Gas mixture
1) Diffusion: lighter gas diffuses at a faster rate than a heavier gas.

ex: H2 and CO2
35
2) Absorption: one gas can be absorbed

ex: CO2 and lime water
3) Adsorption of a gas at a surface:

ex: H2 on Nickel
Past paper questions on unit 2

Cambridge IGCSE 620/May2013/32
Q7)
36
37
Cambridge IGCSE 620/Nov2014/32
38
39
Topics:
1) Atomic structure
2) Isotopes
3) The arrangement of electrons
4) Element & compound
5) Chemical change & physical change
6) Metals & nonmetals
7) Alloy
8) Ions and ionic bonds
9) Molecules and covalent bonds
10) Macromolecules
11) Metallic bonding
12) Names & formulas of compounds
I. Atomic structure
An atom is the smallest particle of a matter that cannot be broken down by any chemical
method.
 An atom consists of :
a) Nucleus: at the center and contains two types of subatomic particles
protons: have positive charge and
neutrons: have no charge (neutral)
b) Electrons: exist in a cloud around the nucleus and have negative charge.
All subatomic particles are measured in atomic mass unit because they are very light
40
Particle Symbol Mass Charge Location

Proton p 1 +1 Inside the nucleus
Electron e 0 -1 in the electron cloud outside the nucleus
Neutron n 1 neutral Inside the nucleus
 Atomic number: the number of protons in an atom.

 Mass number (it is also called the nucleon number): the sum (total) of protons and
neutrons.

41
Number of neutrons = A-Z = mass number – atomic number
 Each element has a unique number of protons, so no two elements can have the
same atomic number.
 Complete the table below
Element Atomic Mass p e n

number number /
nucleon
number
30
12 Mg
38
20 Ca
8
3 Li
232
90 Th
II. Isotopes
Isotopes: atoms of the same element that have the same atomic number but have different
masses (different number of neutrons).
Ex: isotopes of hydrogen
42
 There are two ways to write isotopes:
a) Hyphen notation: (name-mass no.) Hydrogen –

b) Nuclear symbol:
There are two types of isotopes:
1) Radioactive isotopes: they have unstable nucleus.
43
2) Non-radioactive isotopes: have stable nucleus.
 Both types have identical chemical properties because they have the same number of
electrons in their outer shell.
(Same atomic number = same number of protons = same number of electrons)
Radioactive isotopes:
Example: Carbon – 14 is a radioactive isotope, its atoms will break down (decay) naturally
and give off radiation in the form of rays and particles and a lot of energy.
If the radiation enters your body it will kill the body cells. Large dose can cause radiation
sickness. The patient will suffer from vomiting, hair fall, tiredness, and eventually die.
Small and frequent doses of radiation for a long period will cause cancer.
Uses of radioactive isotopes:
a) Industrial uses:
1. Measure thickness of plastic sheets and papers during productions.
2. Trace the leakage of oil, gas, and water pipes by adding a radioactive isotope to the oil
or the gas then use a device called Geiger counter that can detect the emitted radiation
from the isotope outside the pipe, it indicates the location of the leak.
3. Uranium – 235 is used as a fuel in nuclear power stations.
4. Food preservation and sterilization of equipments
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gNgHl2FkswE
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WPhBQSZLMS4
44
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E4B94zCY4ok
b) Medical uses:
1. For diagnosis of diseases. Such as activity of thyroid gland and blood clotting in blood
vessels.
2. For treatment of diseases, such as cobalt – 60 is used to kill cancer cells
3. To sterilize syringes and medical equipments because gamma rays kill bacteria and
germs
4. Measuring the age of fossils using carbon – 12 and the half life method.
I. Arrangement of electrons
Electrons are arranged in shells around the nucleus. The closer the shell to the nucleus is, the
lower the energy level it has. Each shell can hold a certain number of electrons.
45
 The third level fills up to 8 electrons then the next 2 electrons go to the 4th shell
then the rest of the 3rd shell fills.
 The distribution of electrons for the first 20 elements that fill 4 shells can be written as
2,8,8,2 or 2.8.8.2
 Solve the distribution of electrons for the first 20 elements in the diagram below
46
 Patterns in the periodic table:

 The period number tells you how many shells there are.
 Elements in the same group have the same number of valence electrons.
Ex: elements in group I have 1 valence electron, group 2 have 2 valence electrons.
 Valence electrons: electrons in the outer energy level and they determine the
reactivity of the element.
 Elements that have the same number of valence electrons are similar in their
reactivity.
 The group number tells you how many valence electrons there are.
 Check your answer
47
After the 20th element, calcium, the electron shells fill in a more complex way but you can
deduce the electron distribution for later elements.
Ex: strontium, 38Sr. in period 5 and group 2.
Period 5 means there are 5 shells and group 2 means there are 2 valence electrons in the
outer shell. So the electron distribution will be 2, 8,18,8, 2
Atomic number 38 means there are 38 protons and 38 electrons
If you add the number of electrons in the distribution 2+8+18+8+2=38 so your answer is
correct. You have 5 levels and the outer shell has 2 valence electrons.
 Elements in group 0 have a very stable arrangement of electrons, the outer shell have 8
electrons except Helium which has 2 electrons because it has only one shell, which is the
reason they are chemically unreactive. They are called inert gases or noble gases.
48
IV. Element & compound
 Element: is a substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical
or physical methods.
An element contains only one kind of atom, for example copper contains only copper
atoms.
 Compound: is a pure substance made of two or more elements that are chemically
combined.
A compound is described by the chemical formula which uses the symbol of atoms in it.
Ex: sodium chloride (NaCl), water (H2O), Sulfuric acid (H2SO4)
 For each of the previous compounds write the name of the elements that it is composed of
and the number of atoms for each element.
Compound Elements Number of atoms of each

element
Sodium chloride
Water
Sulfuric acid
V. Chemical and physical changes
 Chemical change: a change that forms a new substance and not easy to reverse. Often it
is exothermic (release heat) such as combustion.
 Physical change: a change that does not form a new substance, and easy to reverse.
Often it is endothermic (absorb heat) such as melting.
49
VI. Metals and nonmetals
Metals Nonmetals
Physical properties
Good conductors of electricity and heat Do not conduct or heat
Have high melting point and boiling point Low melting point and boiling point
Many are solids at room temperature Many are gases at room temperature
Shiny Dull
Hard, do not shatter when you hammer Brittle, can shatter when you hammer the
them solid
High density Low density

Malleable ( can be sheet) and ductile ( can Brittle
be wire)
Chemical properties
Form positive ions when they react Form negative ions when they react
React with oxygen forming oxides that are React with oxygen forming oxides that are
bases acidic
 Some metals are soft and can be cut easily with a knife such as sodium and potassium.
 Mercury is a metal that is liquid at room temperature
 Hydrogen is a nonmetal but it forms a positive ion H+ like metals
 Carbon is a nonmetal, it has many forms, one form (graphite) is good conductor and
another form (diamond) is very hard and has a very high melting point.
50
VII. Alloy
An alloy is a mixture of metals or a mixture of a metal and another element.
Brass is a metallic alloy that is made of copper and zinc. The proportions of zinc and copper
can vary to create different types of brass alloys with varying mechanical and electrical
properties.
51
VIII. Ions and ionic bonds
Ions: they are atoms or group of atoms that have a positive or negative charge.
They are formed by losing or gaining electrons not protons.
 There are two types of ions
Cations Anions
Have positive charge Have negative charge
Formed by losing electrons Formed by gaining electrons
Metals Nonmetal
Protons more than electrons Protons less than electrons
Mg → Mg2+ + 2e- -
F + e- → F
 Atoms tend to lose or gain electrons to have a stable electron distribution like noble
gases, group 0.
52
53
54
Chemical bonding
Atoms form bond with each other in order to have a stable electron arrangement of the outer
shell, similar to group 0, Noble gases.
There are 3 types of bonds:
1) Ionic bond
2) Covalent bond
3) Metallic bond
55
Ionic bond
It is a bond that is formed between positive ions and negative ions.
Ex: NaCl (sodium chloride)
A sodium atom loses its valence electron so the outer shell will have 8 electrons, forming a
positive ion, and the chlorine atom will gain that electron so the 7 valence electrons will
become 8, forming a negative ion. The two ions have opposite charges so they attract
together by a strong ionic bond.
Ex: MgO (magnesium oxide)
Magnesium atom loses 2

valence electrons forming +2
magnesium ion, and oxygen
atom has 6 valence electrons
so it gains the 2 electrons
from the magnesium forming
-2 oxide ion. Both ions
attract together.
56
Ex: CaS (calcium sulfide)
Calcium atom loses 2 valence

electrons forming +2 calcium ion,
and sulfur atom has 6 valence
electrons so it gains the 2 electrons
from the calcium forming -2 sulfide
ion. Both ions attract together.
Ex: Li2Cl (lithium sulfide)
Lithium atom loses 1 valence electron

forming +1 lithium ion, and sulfur
atom has 6 valence electrons so it
needs to gain 2 electrons, so it reacts
with 2 lithium atoms to gain them
forming -2 sulfide ion. Both ions
attract together.
Ex: MgCl2 (magnesium chloride)
Magnesium atom loses 2 valence

electrons forming +2 magnesium ion,
and the chlorine atom will gain one
electron so the 7 valence electrons will
become 8, forming a negative ion. So
each magnesium atom needs 2
chlorine atoms to donate the 2
electrons, one for each chlorine atom.
57
Ex: MgF2 (magnesium fluoride)
58
 Give reason why MgO (magnesium oxide) has a higher melting point than NaCl
(sodium chloride). (MgO=2852ºC, NaCl=801ºC)
Because the ions of MgO (Mg2+ and O2-) have more charge than the ions of NaCl
(Na+ and Cl--) so its ionic bond is much stronger.
59

NOTES GR 10

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

NOTES GR 10

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

ABDELQADER BASHA CHEMISTRY O-LEVEL

 Major differences between solids, liquids and gases are:

Shape Fixed Take the shape of the Not fixed

Intermolecular Very strong Strong Very weak

(you draw it)

 Conversion between the states of matter

Sublimation: the change of state from solid to gas directly.

Deposition: the change of state from gas to solid directly.

Example: Dry ice

 What is dry ice?

 Give one reason why a puddle of rain dries up in the sun.

II. Heating and cooling curve of water

1. Heating curve of water

2. Cooling curve of water

The previous changes can be reversed by cooling (removing heat).

More cooling, the liquid particles turn to solid.

Look at the graph below

Heating and Cooling Curve Questions

(a) 0oC (b) 100oC (c) 273oC (d) 373oC

Which compound has the strongest intermolecular forces?

(a) HF(l) (b) CH3Cl(l) (c) CH3F(l) (d) HCl(l)

3 A sample of water is heated from a liquid at 40oC to a gas at 110oC.

 What is the melting point of this substance?

III. Kinetic theory of matter

Particles can be atoms, molecules, or ions.

Evidence for kinetic theory is diffusion

It is the spontaneous movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of

 Try the following experiment

Diffusion in warm water is faster than in cold water

Brownian motion: the apparent random movement of small particles.

 Try the following experiment

 Diffusion of gases is affected by 2 factors

The mass of the particles

 Calculate the molecular mass for HCl and NH3

(HCl) Mr= (NH3) Mr=

 Which gas has a higher molar mass? _________

The lower the mass of the

V. Pure substances and impurities

Example: water boils at 100 oC.

Past paper questions on unit 1

[Cambridge IGCSE 0620/33/NOV/2012]

2 Compound X is a colourless liquid at room temperature.

X(s) ………………….. [1]

(ii) What is the significance of temperature t °C?

(iii) What is the physical state of compound X in the region EF?

[Cambridge IGCSE 0620/33/NOV/2014]

3 (a) Different gases diffuse at different speeds.

(i) What is meant by the term diffusion?

(ii) Why is it an advantage to have the air at a high temperature?

[Cambridge IGCSE 0620/31/MAY/2014]

I. Apparatuses used in the lab

Combustion Digital U-tube

Round bottom flask

Flat bottom flask

II. Hazard symbols

Symbol Indication Explanation

Oxidizing May produce much heat as they

Harmful Cause pain and discomfort.

Corrosive Destroy living tissues, damage

Irritant Can cause reddening or

Example: air is a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, and other gases.

 Give another example of mixtures and mention their components.

 What does homogeneous mean?