STATES OF MATTER

Solids, liquids and gases are known as the three states of matter.
1-Solids:
Arrangement:
 Regular repeating pattern
 Close together, touching each other
Movement:
 Vibrate about fixed positions but do not move apart
Forces between particles:
 Strong force of attraction between them
Shape:
 Fixed shape and volume
2-Liquid:
Arrangement:
 Irregular
 Close together and touching each other
Movement:
 Move around and slide past one another
Forces between particles:
 Weak force of attraction
Shape:
 No fixed shape but fixed volume
3-Gas:
Arrangement:
 Irregular
 Far apart
Movement:
 Move freely and collide with each other
Forces between particles:
 No force of attraction
Shape:
 No fixed shape or volume

Interconversion between the states of matter

deposition
Definitions
Melting
 the process of converting from solid to liquid due to increase in temperature.
Melting point 
 the temperature at which a solid start to melt, e.g. ice melts at 0 °C.
Boiling
 the process of converting from liquid to gas due to increase in temperature. Also known as
vaporization.
Boiling point
 the temperature at which a liquid starts to boil, e.g. water boils at 100 °C.
Condensation
 the process by which a gas turns to liquid.
Sublimation
 the process by which a solid turn directly to gas without melting.
Deposition
 the process by which a gas turns directly to solid.
Evaporation
 the process by which a liquid turns to a gas below its boiling point.
Freezing
 the process of converting liquid into solid due to decreasing in temperature

Arrangement, Movement & Energy

Solid to Liquid
Heat solid until it melts. When a solid is heated the particles gain kinetic energy and start to vibrate
faster about their fixed position. When the temperature is high enough, the vibration of particles
becomes sufficient to overcome the forces of attraction between them. The particles begin to break
away from their regular pattern. They can now slide past each other. The solid becomes a liquid.

Liquid to Solid
Cool liquid until it freezes. When a liquid is cooled, the particles lose their kinetic energy. When the
temperature is low enough, the particles no longer have the energy to slide over each other. The forces
of attraction can hold the particles together in a regular pattern. The substance becomes solid.

Liquid to Gas
Heat the liquid until it boils. When a liquid is heated, the particles gain kinetic energy and mover further
apart. Eventually, the attractive forces in the liquid are broken. Bubbles of gaseous particles escape from
the liquid. The substance becomes gas.

Gas to Liquid
Cool the gas until it condenses. When a gas is cooled, the particles lose kinetic energy and the attractive
forces become great enough to keep the particles closer together as a liquid.
Solid to Gas
Heat the solid until it sublimes. The solid particles gain kinetic energy and vibrate faster. Eventually, the
forces of attraction between the particles are completely broken and they escape from the solid as a
gas.

Gas to solid
Cool the gas until it deposits. The gas particles lose kinetic energy and the attractive force become great
enough to keep the particles closer together as solid.

Terminology
Term Meaning Example
Solvent The liquid in which a solute dissolves The water in
seawater
Solute The substance which dissolves in a liquid to form a The salt in seawater
solution
Solution The mixture formed when a solute is dissolved in a Seawater
solvent
Saturated A solution with the maximum concentration of Seawater in the Dead
solution solute dissolved in the solvent Sea
Soluble Describes a substance that will dissolve Salt is soluble in
water
Insoluble Describes a substance that won’t dissolve Sand is insoluble in
water

Diffusion
What Is diffusion?
It is the spreading out of particles in gas or liquid from and area of high concentration to an area of low
concentration.

Diffusion in gasses

1
1- Description:
 Here, we see the diffusion of bromine gas from one flask to another.
 After 5 minutes the bromine gas has diffused from the bottom flask to the top flask.
Explanation: 
 The air and bromine particles are moving randomly and there are large gaps between particles.
 The particles can therefore easily mix together.
2- Explanation:
 Ammonia particles and hydrogen chloride particles diffuse along the tube. A white ring of solid
ammonium chloride forms where they meet.
 Ammonia particles are lighter than hydrogen chloride particles and therefore move faster.
 The ammonia particles travel further in the same amount of time, which means that the ring
forms further away from the ammonia end.

Diffusion in liquids

1 2

1- Description:
 When potassium manganite (VII) crystals are dissolved in water, a purple solution is formed.
 A small number of crystals produce a highly intense color.
Explanation: 
 The water and potassium manganite (VII) particles are moving randomly and the particles can
slide over each other.
 The particles can therefore easily mix together.
 Diffusion in liquids is slower than in gases because the particles in a liquid are closely packed
together and move more slowly.
2- Description:
 When potassium magnate (VII) crystals are dissolved in water, the solution can be diluted
several times.
 The color fades but does not disappear until a lot of dilutions have been done.
Explanation:
 This indicates that there are a lot of particles in a small amount of potassium magnate (VII) and
therefore the particles must be very small.
Terminology: Solubility
 Different substances have different solubility’s.
 Solubility can be expressed in g per 100 g of solvent.
 Solubility of solids is affected by temperature. As temperature increases, solids become more
soluble.
 Solubility of gases is affected by temperature and pressure. As pressure increases, gases
become more soluble. As temperature increases, gases become less soluble, in general.

Solubility Curves
 Solubility graphs represent solubility in g per 100 g of water plotted against temperature.
 To plot a solubility curve, the maximum mass of solvent that can be dissolved in 100 g of water
before a saturated solution is formed, is determined at a series of different temperatures.
Solubility graph for salts:

Example question 1:
How much potassium nitrate will dissolve in 20g of water at 34°C?
At 34°C the solubility is 48g per 100g of water.
So scaling, 48 x 20 / 100 = 9.6g of potassium nitrate will dissolve in 20g of water.
Example question 2:
200 cm3 of saturated copper solution was prepared at a temperature of 90°C. What mass of copper
sulphate crystals form if the solution was cooled to 20°C?
Solubility of copper sulphate at 90°C is 67g/100g water, and 21g/100g water at 20°C.
Therefore, mass of crystals formed = 67 – 21 = 46g (for 100cm 3 of solution).
However, 200cm3 of solution was prepared.
So total mass of copper sulphate crystallized = 2 x 46 = 92g
 ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURES

Element
It contains only one type of atom and they are substances that can’t be split into anything simpler.

Compound
Two or more elements chemically combined.

Mixture
A combination of two or more substances (elements and/or compounds) that are not chemically joined
together. Can be separated by physical methods of separation.

Difference between mixtures and compounds

Proportions:
 Compound: it has a specific proportion.
 Mixtures: bonded together in any proportion.
Properties:
 Compound: pure substances
 New substance is formed
 Their melting and boiling points are defined
 Their compositions are fixed
  Mixtures: impure substances
 No new substances are formed
 Their melting and boiling points are not defined
 Their compositions are variable
Ease of separation:
 Compounds: they are separated by chemical reactions
 Mixtures: they are separated by physical methods

Pure Substance Vs Mixture

Pure substance: 
 Contains only one substance, with no other substances mixed together
 Has fixed melting and boiling point as they consist of only one substance so all molecules will
have the same melting and boiling points
 E.g. Water has a boiling point of 100°C and a melting point of 0°C
Mixture: 
 A combination of two or more substances (elements and/or compounds) that are not chemically
joined together
 Has a range of melting and boiling points as they consist of different substances that melt or boil
at different temperatures

Testing purity:
 The physical property of boiling/melting point can therefore be used to test if a substance is
pure or not.
 For example, if a sample of water melts at exactly 0°C and boils at exactly 100°C then the water
is pure.
 If the melting and boiling points of the water aren’t these exact values, then the water must be
impure and contain other substances i.e. it must be a mixture.

Separation Techniques
1- Simple distillation
Use: To separate a liquid and soluble solid from a solution (e.g. water from a solution of salt water)
Explanation:
 Solution is heated and water vapors will rise and evaporate
 Water vapors will pass through the condenser, where it cools and condenses, turning into a
liquid that will be collected in a beaker
 After all the water is evaporated from the solution, the solute will be left behind
2- Fractional distillation
Use: To separate two or more liquids that are
 miscible with one another (e.g. ethanol and water from
a mixture of the two)
Explanation:
 Solution is heated at temperature of substance 
with the lowest boiling point
 This substance will rise and evaporate, and
vapors will pass through a condenser, where it cools
and condenses, turning into a liquid that will be
collected in a beaker
 All of this substance is evaporated and collected,
leaving behind a mixture or a substance

3- Filtration
Use: To separate an undissolved solid from a mixture of the
solid and a liquid / solution (e.g. sand from a mixture
of sand and water)
Explanation:
 Filter paper is placed in a filter funnel above another beaker
 Mixture of insoluble solid and liquid is poured into the filter funnel
 Filter paper will only allow small liquid particles to pass through
as the filtrate
 Solid particles are too large to pass through the filter paper so
will stay behind as a residue

4-Crystallization
Use: To separate a dissolved solid from a solution, when the solid
is much more soluble in hot solvent than in cold (e.g. copper
sulphate from a solution of copper (ii) sulphate in water)
Explanation:
 Solution is heated, allowing the solvent to evaporate to
leave a saturated solution. Test the solution is saturated by
dipping a clean, dry, cold glass rod into the solution. If the
solution is saturated, crystals will form in the glass rod.
 Saturated solution is allowed to cool and solids
will come out of the solution, as the solubility increases,
and crystals will grow
 Crystals are collected by filtering the solution.
Then the crystals are washed with cold, distilled water to
remove impurity. Dry the crystals.
5- Paper chromatography
Use: To separate substances that have different solubility’s in a
given solvent (e.g. different colored inks that have been mixed
to make black ink)
Explanation:
 Pencil line is drawn on chromatography paper and
spots of ink / dye are placed on it.
 Paper is lowered into a bucket of solvent, allowing the
solvent to travel up the paper, taking some of the colored 
substances with it.
 Different substances will have different solubility’s
so will travel at different rates, causing the substances to
spread apart. Those with higher solubility will spread more than the others.
 This will show the different components of the ink / dye.

Composition of a Mixture
 A pure substance will only produce one spot on the chromatogram
 A mixture will produce more than one spot.

Rf Values (Retardation factor)

 These values are used to identify the components of mixtures.
 The Rf value of a particular compound is always the same.
 Calculating the Rf value allows chemists to identify unknown substances because it can be
compared with Rf values of known substances under the same conditions.
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE

Terminology
Atom:
The smallest particle of an element that consists of electrons surrounding a nucleus that contains
protons and neutrons.
Molecule:
The smallest particle of an element or compound that can exist independently. Molecules are formed
when atoms join together by chemical bonds.

The Structure of an Atom

 Atoms are made up of subatomic particles called protons, neutrons and electrons.
 The nucleus is composed of protons and neutrons and the electrons orbit around the nucleus in
different shells.

PARTICLE RELATIVE MASS RELATIVE CHARGE

Proton 1 +1
Neutron 1 0
Electron 1/1836 -1

Proton (+) Neutron (N) Electron (e-)

 Located in the
nucleus
 Has positive charge
 Has a mass of 1
 Located in the nucleus  Orbit the nucleus in
 Has no charge shells
 Has a mass of 1  Has negative charge
 Has no mass
 Very small

Atomic number and atomic mass number

Atomic number:
 The number of protons in a nucleus of an atom
 The atomic number is always the smaller number
Mass number:
 The sum number of protons and neutrons in a nucleus of an atom
 Number of neutrons = mass number – atomic number
Number of electrons = number of protons
Atomic number = number of protons
Mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons

Isotopes
What are isotopes?
 Atoms of the same element that contains the same number of protons and electrons but a
different number of neutrons.
 Therefore, they have the same atomic number but a different mass number.
 Different isotopes have different physical properties
 Different isotopes always have same chemical properties

Relative atomic mass (Ar)

What is the relative atomic mass?
 Weighted average mass of one atom of an element, taking into account the abundances of all
the isotopes of that element.
 It is measured in atomic mass unit (amu)
Equation:

(% of isotope 1 x mass of isotope 1) + (% of isotope 2 x mass of isotope 2)

Ar = _______________________________________________________________
100

Example:

Isotop Number of Number of Percentage of isotope in

e protons neutrons sample

1 37 48 72%

2 37 50 28%
   (72   x   85)   +  ( 28   x   87 )
    ____________________________     =   85.6 Relative atomic mass = 85.6
                         100
THE PERIODIC TABLE

Periodic table basics:

 Elements are arranged on the periodic table in order of increasing atomic number, where each
element has one proton more than the element preceding it.
 The table is arranged in vertical columns called Groups numbered 1 – 8 and in rows
called Periods.
 Period: these are the horizontal rows that show the number of shells of electrons an atom has.
o E.g.:  elements in Period 2 have two electron shells, elements in Period 3 have three
electron shells.
 Group: these are the vertical columns that show how many outer electrons each atom has.
o E.g.: Group 4 elements have atoms with 4 electrons in the outermost shell, Group 6
elements have atoms with 6 electrons in the outermost shell.

The arrangement of electrons in an atom

 The electrons move around the nucleus in a series of levels called energy levels or shells.
 Each energy level (shell) can only hold a certain number of electrons.
 Lower energy levels are always filled before higher ones.
 The lowest energy level is the closest one to the nucleus.

Electronic Configurations
What is electronic configuration?
The arrangement of electrons into shells for an atom. This can be figured out by following some rules:
 Electrons always occupy shells that are closest to the nucleus first
 When a shell becomes full, electrons will fill the next shell
Electronic configuration and position in periodic table
 The number of notations in the electronic configuration will show the number of shells of
electrons the atom has, showing the period
 The last notation shows the number of outer electrons the atom has, showing the group

period group

Drawing diagrams of electronic configuration

Let’s take Fluorine as example:
Fluorine has an atomic number of 9 which means the first shell will have 2 and the second 7
Electronic configuration: 2,7
Group 7
Period 2

Elements in the same group have similar chemical properties

 all the elements in Group 1 react vigorously with water to form hydrogen and hydroxides with
similar formulae: LiOH (lithium hydroxide), NaOH (sodium hydroxide), KOH (potassium
hydroxide)
 all the elements in Group 7 react with hydrogen to form compounds with similar formulae: HF
(hydrogen fluoride), HCI (hydrogen chloride), HBr (hydrogen bromide)
 all the elements in Group 2 form chlorides with similar formulae: MgCl2, CaCl2

Group properties:
The Group I metals
 The Group I metals are also called the alkali metals as they form alkaline solutions with high pH
values when reacted with water.
 Group 1 metals are lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, cesium and francium.
 They all contain just one electron in their outer shell.
Physical properties of the Group I metals
 The Group I metals:
o Are soft and easy to cut, getting softer and denser as you move down the Group
(sodium and potassium do not follow the trend in density).
o Have shiny silvery surfaces when freshly cut.
o Conduct heat and electricity.
o They all have low melting points and low densities and the melting point decreases as
you move down the Group.
Chemical properties of the Group I metals
 They react readily with oxygen and water vapor in air so they are usually kept under oil to
stop them from reacting.
 Group 1 metals will react similarly with water, reacting vigorously to produce
an alkaline metal hydroxide solution and hydrogen gas.

Explaining the trend in reactivity in Group I

 The reactivity of the Group 1 metals increases as you go down the group.
 Each outer shell contains only one electron so when they react, they lose the outer electron
which empties the outermost shell.
 The next shell down automatically becomes the outermost shell and is already full, hence
the atom obtains an electronic configuration which has a full outer shell of electrons.
 As you go down Group 1, the number of shells of electrons increases by 1 (Period number
increases down the Periodic table).
 This means that the outer electron is further away from the nucleus so there
are weaker electrostatic forces of attraction.
 This requires less energy to overcome the electrostatic forces of attraction between the
negatively charged electron and the positively charged nucleus.
 This allows the electron to be lost easily, making it more reactive as you go down the Group.
The halogens
 These are the Group 7 non-metals that are poisonous and include fluorine, chlorine, bromine,
iodine and astatine.
 Halogens are diatomic, meaning they form molecules of two atoms.
 All halogens have seven electrons in their outer shell.
 They form halide ions by gaining one more electron to complete their outer shells.
Trends in Physical Properties of the halogens
Melting Point
 The density and melting and boiling points of the halogens increase as you go down the Group.
State at Room Temperature
 At room temperature (20 °C), the physical state of the halogens changes as you go down the
Group.
 Chlorine is a gas, bromine is a liquid and iodine is a solid.
Color
 The halogens become darker as you go down the group.
 Chlorine is pale green, bromine is red-brown and iodine is black.
 Explaining the trend in reactivity in Group I
 Reactivity of Group 7 non-metals increases as you go up the Group.
 Each outer shell contains seven electrons and when they react, they will need to gain one
outer electron to get a full outer shell of electrons.
 As you go up Group 7, the number of shells of electrons decreases 
  This means that the outer electrons are closer to the nucleus so there
are stronger electrostatic forces of attraction that attract the extra electron needed.

The noble gases

 The Group O elements are known as the noble gases because they are almost completely
unreactive
 The lack of reactivity of the elements in Group O is associated with their electronic
configurations
 The noble gases are unreactive because the outer shell is full, and so there is no tendency to
lose, gain or share electrons in a chemical reaction.
Transition Elements
General properties of the transition elements
 They are very hard and strong metals and are good conductors of heat and electricity.
 They have very high melting points and are highly dense metals.
 E.g: the melting point of titanium is 1,688ºC whereas potassium melts at only 63.5ºC, slightly
warmer than the average cup of hot chocolate!
 The transition metals form coloured compounds and often have more than one oxidation
 state.
 Transition metals are often used as catalysts.

Metals and nonmetals

Metals:
• tend to be solids with high melting and boiling points, and with relatively
high densities (but as with several of the properties in this list, there are exceptions, for example
mercury is a liquid)
• are shiny (have a metallic luster) when they are polished or freshly cut
• are malleable (can be hammered into shape)
• are ductile (can be drawn into wires)
• are good conductors of electricity and heat
• form ionic compounds
• form positive ions in their compounds
•Metals generally form basic oxides.
Non-metals:
• tend to have low melting and boiling points (there are some exceptions, e.g. carbon and silicon)
• tend to be brittle when they are solids
• don't have the same type of shine as metals
• don't usually conduct electricity; carbon (in the form of graphite) and silicon are again exceptions
wouldn't mistake them for a metal.
• are poor conductors of heat (diamond is an exception; it is the best conductor of heat of all the
elements)
• form both ionic and covalent compounds
• tend to form negative ions in ionic compounds
• Non-metals generally form acidic oxides.
 IONIC BONDING

Ionic bonding:
-You can recognize ionic compounds because they (usually) contain a metal.
-An ion is an electrically charged atom or a group of atoms that are formed by the loss or gain of
electrons.
 This loss or gain of electrons leave a full outer shell of electrons.
 The electronic structure of an ion will be the same as that of a noble gas – such as Helium, Neon
and Argon.
Ionization of metals and non-metals:
 Metals: They will lose electrons to another atom and become positively charged ions
 Non-metals: They will gain electrons from another atom to become negatively charged ions

Ions are charged particles formed when atoms lose or gain electrons. Ions can have either a positive or
negative charge.
 A positive ion is called a cation.
 A negative ion is called an anion.

How it works?
Chlorine – 17 it is easier to gain 1
Proton = +17 electron than lose 7
electron = -17
Charge = 0
Gain 1

1
Proton = +17
electron = -18
charge = -1
Ion Charges
How to deduce the charge of an ion:
 Find the number of electrons in the outer electron shell.
 Find out if it is easy for the atom to gain electron or to donate electron. (in most cases atoms
that have below four electrons, donate electrons and atoms that have above 4 electrons,
receive electrons)
 Atoms that gain electron become negative ion and atoms that donate electron forms positive
ion
Writing Formulae
Ionic Compounds: Formed when atoms of metals transfer electrons to atoms of non-metals to form
compounds made up of ions.
Formulae for compounds formed between ions
 Metals: They will lose electrons to another atom and become positively charged ions
 Non-Metals: They will gain electrons from another atom to become negatively charged ions
EXAMPLE 1:
Sodium Chloride, NaCl, has a typical ionic bond
Sodium Atom
 Sodium is a group 1 metal so will lose one outer electron to another atom to have a full outer
shell of electrons
 They will lose an electron to form a positive ion with the charge 1+
          Na   2 . 8 . 1      →     Na+   2 . 8
Chlorine Atom
 Chlorine is a Group 7 non-metal so will need to gain an electron to have a full outer shell of
electrons
 one electron will be transferred from the outer shell of the sodium atom to the outer shell of
the chlorine atom
 Chlorine atom will gain an electron to form a negative ion with charge 1-
          Cl   2 . 8 . 7      →      Cl–   2 . 8 . 8
Formula of Ionic Compound:    NaCl
EXAMPLE 2:
Magnesium Oxide, MgO, has a typical ionic bond
MAGNESIUM ATOM
 Magnesium is a group 2 metal so will lose two outer electrons to another atom to have a full
outer shell of electrons
 They will lose two electrons to form a positive ion with the charge 2+
          Mg   2 . 8 . 2      →    Mg2+   2 . 8
OXYGEN ATOM
 Oxygen is a group 6 non-metal so will need to gain two electrons to have a full outer shell of
electrons
 Two electrons will be transferred from the outer shell of the Magnesium Atom to the outer shell
of the oxygen atom
 Oxygen atom will gain two electrons to form a negative ion with charge 2-
O2   2 . 8 . 7      →      O22-   2 . 8 . 8
Formula of Ionic Compound:    MgO
Dot-and-Cross Diagrams of Ionic Compounds
Ionic Compounds: Formed when atoms of metals transfer electrons to atoms of non-metals to form
compounds made up of ions
Dot-and-Cross Diagrams: Shows the ionic bonds between ions by the loss and gain of electrons
 Only the outer shell of electrons of each atom is drawn
 Electrons in one atom will be represented as crosses, whilst electrons in the other atom will be
represented as circles, indicating which ion gains or loses electrons
 The charges of each ion is displayed at the upper right corner of each ion
Dot Cross Diagrams
Tips for drawing dot cross diagrams:
1. Decide how many electrons are in the outer shell of each atom and mark them on.
2. Show how the electrons are transferred.
3. Show how many electrons the ions now have in that outer shell.
Example 1:
Sodium Chloride, NaCl, has a typical ionic bond

Explanation
 Sodium is a group 1 metal so will lose one outer electron to another atom to have a full outer
shell of electrons
 They will lose an electron to form a positive ion with the charge 1+
 Chlorine is a group 7 non – metal so will need to gain an electron to have a full outer shell of
electrons
 One electron will be transferred from the outer shell of the Sodium atom to the outer shell of
the Chlorine atom
 Chlorine atom will gain an electron to form a negative ion with charge 1-
          Formula of Ionic Compound:    NaCl
Example 2:
Magnesium Oxide, MgO, has a typical ionic bond
Explanation
 Magnesium is a group 2 metal so will lose two outer electrons to another atom to have a full
outer shell of electrons
 They will lose two electrons to form a positive ion with the charge 2+
 Oxygen is a group 6 non – metal so will need to gain two electrons to have a full outer shell of
electrons
 Two electrons will be transferred from the outer shell of the Magnesium atom to the outer shell
of the Oxygen atom
 Oxygen atom will gain two electrons to form a negative ion with charge 2-
          Formula of ionic compound:    MgO

Ionic Bonding: Bond between metal and non-metal with strong electrostatic forces of attraction
between oppositely charged ions.

Swap and drop method

When the number of charges is different, a ‘swap and drop’ method can help.
 write down the symbol and charge of each ion in the compound.
 ignore the sign and if the number of the charges are the same, then write the formula in a 1:1
ratio.
 if the number of the charges is different, swap the charges by crossing sides, drop the signs and
write the formula.
 watch out for molecular ions – you’ll need to use brackets if there is more than one of them.
Compound ions
 Compound ions contain more than one element. For example the nitrate ion NO3- contain one
nitrogen joined to 3 oxygen atoms and an extra electron.
 This means a nitrate ion would act in an ionic compound will act as a group 7 element. A nitrate
ion will try to gain 1 electron.
 If two or more compound ions of the same type needed in a formula the ions must be written in
a bracket. For example magnesium nitrate.
 A magnesium ion will try to lose 2 electrons, but 1 nitrate ion can only take 1.
 Using the drag and drop method shows the formula
 Formula: Mg(NO3)2
 What is the overall charge on the compound?
 It is still an overall charge of 0

Giant Ionic Lattices

Giant Ionic Lattice: Giant three-dimensional lattice structure held together by the strong attraction
between oppositely charged ions.
Example:

Melting and boiling point of compounds with giant ionic lattices:

 Melting and boiling point depends on the force that holds the particles.
 Giant Ionic Lattices are held together by the strong attraction between oppositely charged ions
with many ions and bonds in structure.
 Large amounts of heat energy is needed to overcome forces and break down the bonds.
  Therefore compounds with giant ionic lattices have high melting and boiling points.
 Ionic charge is directly proportional to the melting and boiling point in an ionic compound.
e.g. Magnesium oxide has higher melting point that NaCl. This is because in MgO, 2+ ions are attracting
2- ions and in sodium chloride, the attraction is weaker because there are only 1+ and 1- ions attracted.

Ionic Compounds & Electrical Conductivity

Ionic Compounds: Formed when atoms of metals transfer electrons to atoms of non-metals to form
compounds made up of ions.

Electrical Conductivity of Ionic Compounds:

 Ionic compounds cannot conduct electricity when solid as ions are fixed in structure and are not
free to move.
 However, ionic compounds can conduct electricity when molten or in aqueous solution as their
ions are free to move to conduct an electric charge.

Covalent Bonds between Non-Metals

When two or more non-metals share electrons to fulfill their outer electron shell, they form a bond
called covalent bond.
Covalent Bond: Bond between non-metal and non-metal formed by a shared pair of electrons
between the two atoms.
Example:

Electrostatic Attractions
There is a strong attraction between the shared pair of electrons and the nuclei of the atoms involved.
Covalent Bonds: Dot & Cross Diagrams
Covalent Compound: Compound with bonds between Non-Metal and Non-Metal formed by the shared
pair of electrons between the two atoms

 Only non-metal elements participate in covalent bonding.

 As in ionic bonding, each atom gains a full outer shell of electrons.
 When two or more atoms are chemically bonded together, we describe them as ‘molecules.
 Covalent bonds between atoms are strong and the bonded unit of atoms is what is called
a molecule.
 The positively charged nuclei of the atoms in the bond are attracted to the negatively charged
area of space where the bonding electrons are by electrostatic forces.
 The forces that act between the molecules are weak intermolecular forces , they are not
chemical bonds.
 The shared electrons are called bonding electrons and occur in pairs.
 Electrons on the outer shell which are not involved in the covalent bond(s) are called non-
bonding electrons.
The two non-metal atoms cannot form a bond by transferring electrons from one to another. Instead,
they share electrons.
The shared electrons join the atoms together. This is called a covalent bond.

DOT-AND-CROSS DIAGRAMS OF DIATOMIC MOLECULES:

Diatomic molecules are molecules composed of only two atoms

DOT-AND-CROSS DIAGRAMS OF INORGANIC MOLECULES:

A molecule not consisting of carbon atoms.
DOT-AND-CROSS DIAGRAMS OF ORGANIC MOLECULES:
 A molecule of the kind normally found in living systems.

Simple Molecular Structure

Simple molecular structure: Consists of molecules in which the atoms are joined by strong
covalent bonds.
Intermolecular forces of attraction: All forces between molecules.
 All of these substances have very strong covalent bonds between the atoms, but much weaker
forces holding the molecules together.
 When one of these substances’ melts or boils, it is these weak ‘intermolecular forces’ that
break, not the strong covalent bonds.
 Because the weak intermolecular forces break down easily these substances have low melting
and boiling points.
 This means simple molecular substances are gases, liquids or solids with low melting points,
and low boiling points.
Examples of Simple Molecular Structures:
;

Melting & Boiling Points

Relative Molecular Mass: Calculated by adding together the relative atomic mass for all the atoms
shown in its chemical formula.
Melting and Boiling Point of Simple compounds in relation to Molecular Mass:
 As the relative molecular mass of a substance increases, the melting and boiling point will
increase as well (positive correlation).
 An increase in the relative molecular mass of a substance means that there are more covalent
bonds in the structure, so there are more intermolecular forces of attraction that need to be
broken down.
 So larger amounts of heat energy are needed to overcome these forces, causing the compound
to have a higher melting and boiling point.

Electrical Conductivity of Covalent Compounds:

 Covalent compounds do not conduct electricity as they do not have delocalized electrons that
are free to move to conduct an electric charge.

In covalent bonding, atoms share electrons with each other. Non-metals form covalent bonds because
non-metals need to share electrons to get a full outer shell. When they are gases, most non-metals form
simple molecules, where two atoms are joined together. Substances with covalent bonds often form
molecules. They are usually poor conductors of electricity and heat and often have low melting and
boiling points.
 COVALENT BONDING

Giant Covalent Structures

Giant Covalent Structure: Contains a lot of non-metal atoms, each joined to adjacent atoms
by covalent bonds to form a giant lattice structure.
Substances with Giant Covalent Structures:

 States: Giant covalent structures are solids.

 Melting and Boiling point: Substances with giant covalent structures have high melting and
boiling point as they have many strong covalent bonds that needs to be broken down so
large amounts of heat energy is needed to overcome forces and break down bonds.

Examples of Giant Covalent Structures:

Macromolecules
Macro = big/giant
Macromolecules are giant structures of nonmetal atoms covalently bonded together.
 Diamond
 Graphite
 Silicon dioxide (SiO2)
*Both diamond and graphite are different forms of carbon. They are allotropes of carbon

Allotropes: Different atomic, molecular arrangements of the same element in the same physical state.
Properties:
Hard
 Each carbon atom is joined to four other carbon atoms, forming a giant covalent structure.
 Strong covalent bonds are difficult to break.
High Melting and Boiling Point
 Giant Covalent Structure so there are many strong covalent bonds that needs to be broken
down.
 Large amounts of heat energy is needed to overcome forces and break down bonds.
Does not Conduct Electricity
 All four valence (outer-shell) electrons are used in covalent bonds so there are no
delocalized electrons that are mobile to conduct electricity
Uses:
 Cutting Tools
 Jewellery

Properties:
Soft and Slippery
 Graphite is made up of two-dimensional layers of carbon atoms, which are held by weak van
der Waal’s forces, lie on top of each other.
 Forces of attraction between the layers are weak so the layers easily slide over one another
and can easily be separated.
High Melting and Boiling Point
 Within each layer, each carbon atom forms strong covalent bonds with three other carbon
atoms in a giant covalent structure so there are many strong covalent bonds that needs to
be broken down
 Large amounts of heat energy is needed to overcome forces and break down bonds.
Conducts Electricity
 Only three valence electrons are used in forming covalent bonds
 Fourth electron is delocalized between the layers and free to move parallel to the layers to
conduct an electric charge.
Uses:
  Lubricant
 Electrodes for Electrolysis

Carbon exists as graphite and diamond, but it can also form fullerenes. These are cages and tubes
with different number of carbon atoms. Buckminsterfullerene is one type of fullerene. Its
molecules are spherical and contain 60 carbon atoms.
Properties:
Soft
 Each carbon atom is joined to only three other carbon atoms so there are weak
intermolecular forces of attraction between molecules.
 Intermolecular bonds can be broken down easily making it soft.
Low Melting and Boiling Point
 Each carbon atom is joined to only three other carbon atoms.
 This means that there are weak intermolecular forces of attraction between molecules.
 So small amounts of heat energy is needed to overcome forces and break down bonds.

Conducts Electricity
 Only three valence electrons are used in forming covalent bonds.
 Fourth electron is delocalised and is free to move to conduct an electric charge.
Uses:
 Drug Delivery System in the Body (Nanotubes)
 Lubricant
 Catalyst
 METALLIC BONDING

Metallic Lattice as a Diagram

 Metal atoms are held strongly to each other by metallic bonding.
 In the metal lattice, the atoms lose their valence electrons and become positively charged.
 The valence electrons no longer belong to any metal atom and are said to be delocalised.
 They move freely between the metal ions like a sea of electrons.
 Metal atoms are held together by strong metallic bonds forming a lattice structure.
 This type of bonding occurs in metals and metal alloys, which are mixtures of metals.
 Within the metal lattice, the atoms lose their valence electrons and become positively charged
metal ions.
 The valence electrons no longer belong to any specific metal atom and are said to be
delocalised.
 This means they can move freely between the positive metal ions and act like a “sea of
electrons”.

Metallic Lattice: Giant three-dimensional lattice structure of positive ions surrounded by a sea of

delocalized electrons.

Diagram:

Electrostatic Attractions
Metallic Bonding: The attraction between the positive ions and delocalised electrons that keeps the ions
together.
Examples of Metallic Compounds:
Physical Properties

Structure & Uses of Alloys

 An alloy is a mixture of two or more metals or a metal and a nonmetal
 Alloys often have properties that can be very different to the metals they contain, for example
they can have more strength, hardness or resistance to corrosion or extreme temperatures
 Alloys contain atoms of different sizes, which distorts the normally regular arrangements of
atoms in metals
 This makes it more difficult for the layers to slide over each other, so alloys are usually much
harder than the pure metal

Common alloys and their uses

 Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc and is much stronger than either metal
 Alloys of iron with tungsten are extremely hard and resistant to high temperatures
 Alloys of iron mixed with chromium or nickel are resistant to corrosion
  Aluminum is mixed with copper, manganese and silicon for aircraft body production as the alloy
is stronger but still has a low density
Uses of Aluminium, Copper & Mild Steel
More properties of metals
 Metallic bonds are very strong and are a result of the attraction between the positive metal ions
and the negative delocalised electrons within the metal lattice structure.
 Metals thus have very high melting and boiling points and are solids at room temperature, with
the exception of mercury which is a liquid.
 They are usually insoluble in water although some do react with it.
 Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity due to the delocalised electrons.
 The layers of atoms in metals can slide over each other meaning metals are malleable and can
be hammered and bent into shapes or rolled into flat sheets.

Electrical Conductivity
 Metals have free electrons available to move and carry charge throughout the metal lattice
structure.
 Electrons entering one end of the metal cause a delocalised electron to displace itself from the
other end.
 Hence electrons can flow so electricity is conducted.
 Copper is used extensively in the production of electrical wiring due to its excellent malleability
and electrical conductivity.
Thermal Conductivity
 Similarly, metals are also good conductors of heat.
 The delocalised electrons are free to move and can also carry thermal energy throughout the
metal lattice structure.
 Some metals are better conductors of heat energy than others.
 THE ALKALI METALS

Alkali Metals: Group 1 metals that includes: Lithium, Sodium, Potassium, Rubidium, Caesium and
Francium.
 The Group 1 metals are also called the alkali metals as they form alkaline solutions with high
pH values when reacted with water.
 The Group 1 metals are lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, caesium and francium.

How Alkali Metals React with Water

Similar Reactions with Water:
 Group 1 metals will react similarly with water as they are a family of elements called alkali
metals
 They will react vigorously with water to produce an alkaline metal hydroxide and hydrogen gas.
Trend of Reactivity
Trend of Reactivity in Group 1 Metals:
 The Reactivity of Group 1 Metals will increase down the group
 As you go down the group, the observations during the reaction with air and water becomes
more vigorous

Reaction with Air: Reaction with Water:

Predicting Properties
Properties of other Alkali Metals (Rubidium, Caesium and Francium):
 As the reactivity of alkali metals increases down the Group, Rubidium, Caesium and Francium
will react more vigorously with air and water
 Lithium will be the least reactive at the top and Francium will be the most reactive at the bottom
 Francium is rare and radioactive so is difficult to confirm predictions

Predicted Reaction with Water:

Reactivity Trends & Electronic Configuration

Trend in Reactivity of Group 1:

 Reactivity of group 1 metals increases as you go down the group.
 Each outer shell contains only one electron, when group 1 metals react, they will lose one outer
electron to get a full outer shell of electrons.
 As you go down group 1, the number of shells of electrons increases by 1 (period number
increases down the periodic table).
 This means that the outer electron is further away from the nucleus so there are weaker
electrostatic forces of attraction.
 This requires less energy to overcome the electrostatic forces of attraction between the
negatively charged electron and the positively charged nucleus.
 This allows the electron to be lost easily, making it more reactive as you go down the group.

The Group I metals:

 Are soft and easy to cut, getting softer as you move down the Group due to increasing density
(except for potassium which fluctuates).
 The first three alkali metals are less dense than water.
 They all have relatively low melting points which decreases as you move down the Group due to
decreasing electrostatic forces.
 The Group 1 metals react readily with oxygen and water vapor in air, so they are usually kept
under oil to stop them from reacting.
 They react vigorously in water to produce an alkaline metal hydroxide solution and hydrogen
gas.
 THE HALOGENS

The Physical Properties of Halogens

Halogens: Group 7 non-metals that are poisonous and includes: Fluorine, Chlorine, Bromine, Iodine and
Astatine.
Halogens are diatomic, meaning they form molecules of two atoms.

Colors and States at Room Temperature:

Trends in Physical Properties:

1. Melting Point
The Melting and Boiling Points of Halogens increases as you go down the group

2. State at Room Temperature

At room temperature (20 °C), the physical states of the Halogens become more hard and set.
Chlorine is a gas, bromine is a liquid and iodine is a solid.
 3. Colour
The Halogens become darker as you go down the group.
Chlorine is pale green, bromine is red-brown and iodine is black.

Predicting the Properties of Halogens

Properties of other Halogens (Fluorine and Astatine):
Melting and Boiling Point
 The melting and boiling point of Halogens increases as you go down the group
 Fluorine is on the top of Group 7 so will have the lowest melting and boiling point
 Astatine is on the bottom of Group 7 so will have the highest melting and boiling point
States
 The states of Halogens become more hard and set as you go down the group
 Fluorine is on the top of Group 7 so will be a Gas
 Astatine is on the bottom of Group 7 so will be a Solid
Colour
 The colour of Halogens become darker as you go down the group
 Fluorine is on the top of Group 7 so the colour will be lighter: Yellow
 Astatine is on the bottom of Group 7 so the colour will be darker: Black

Halogens & Halides Displacement Reactions

Displacement Reaction: When a more reactive Halogen displaces a less reactive halogen for an aqueous
solution of its halide.
 Reactivity of Group 7 non-metals increases as you go up the group
 Out of the 3 halogens, chlorine, bromine and Iodine, chlorine is the most reactive and iodine is
the least reactive
Examples:
If you add chlorine solution to colourless potassium solution, the solution becomes orange as bromine is
formed. Chlorine is above bromine in group 7 so is more reactive. Chlorine will therefore displace
bromine from an aqueous solution of metal bromide:
Chlorine  +  Potassium Bromide Solution  →  Potassium Chloride Solution  +  Bromine
2KBr (aq) + Cl2 (aq) → 2KCl (aq) + Br2(aq)
Bromine is above Iodine in Group 7 so is more reactive. Bromine will therefore displace Iodine from an
Aqueous Solution of Metal Iodide:
Bromine  +  Magnesium Iodide Solution  →  Magnesium Bromide Solution  +  Iodine
Br2 (l) + 2MgI (aq) → 2MgBr (aq) + I2 (aq or s)

Electronic Configuration of Elements in Group 7

Trend in Reactivity of Group 7:
 Reactivity of group 7 non-metals increases as you go up.
 Each outer shell contains seven electrons and when group 7 metals react, they will need to gain
one outer electron to get a full outer shell of electrons.
 As you go up group 7, the number of shells of electrons decreases (period number decreases up
the Periodic Table).
 This means that the outer electrons are closer to the nucleus so there are stronger electrostatic
forces of attraction that attracts the extra electron needed.
 This allows an electron to be attracted more readily, making it more reactive as you go up the
group.

Reaction of halogens
The halogens react with hydrogen to form hydrogen halides: hydrogen fluoride, hydrogen chloride,
hydrogen bromide and hydrogen iodide. For example:
H2(g) + Br2(g) -+ 2HBr(g)

In common with all the compounds formed between the halogens and non-metals, the gases are
covalently bonded. They are very soluble in water, reacting with it to produce solutions of acids. For
example, hydrochloric acid is a solution of hydrogen chloride in water:
HCl(g) ---- dissolve in water ---- HCl(aq)
hydrogen chloride hydrochloric acid

The halogens react with alkali metals to form salts. For instance, sodium burns in chlorine with its
typical yellow flame to produce white, solid sodium chloride:
2Na(s) + Cl2(g) -+ 2NaCl(s)
Sodium chloride is an ionic solid. Typically, when the halogens react with metals from Groups 1 and 2,
they form ions.
When the metal ion does not do anything, we call it a spectator ion.

REMEMBER
  oxidation is loss of electrons
 reduction is gain of electrons
Redox reaction
The reactions above that do show a colour change are often discussed in terms of oxidation and
reduction, they are redox reactions.
If we look at the reaction between chlorine and either bromide ions or iodide ions, we can see why they
are described as redox reactions.

Summery of the properties of the group 7 metals

 have diatomic molecules, X2 (e.g. F2, Cl2, Br2)
 go from gases to liquid to solid as you move down the group: the melting points and boiling
points increase down the group
 have coloured poisonous vapours: the colours of the elements get darker down the group
 form compounds with the formula HX (e.g. HF, HCI, HBr) when reacted withhydrogen and these
dissolve in water to form acids
 form ionic salts with metals and covalent compounds with non-metals
 form x- (e.g. F-, c1-. Br-) ions in ionic compounds
 become less reactive towards the bottom of the group
 will displace elements lower down the group from their salts
 GASES IN THE ATMOSPHERE

The table below shows the approximate percentages by volume of the main gases in unpolluted, dry air:

Experiments: Finding the % of Oxygen in Air

Using copper

 The plunger on one of the gas syringes is pushed all the way in and the other moved out to 1 00
cm3. We now know that the apparatus contains 100 cm3 air.
 The silica tube is heated strongly {roaring Bunsen flame).
 The plunger in the left-hand gas syringe is pushed in. This causes the air to pass over the heated
copper. This pushes out the plunger on the right-hand gas syringe.
 The plungers are pushed in sequence so that the air in the system keeps passing over the heated
copper. The pink-brown copper turns black as copper{II) oxide is formed.
 As the copper reacts, the Bunsen burner is moved along the tube so that it is always heating
fresh copper.
 The volume of gas in the syringes falls as the oxygen is consumed.
 We keep pushing the plungers in and out until there is no change in volume.
 The apparatus is then allowed to cool to room temperature again before taking the final volume
of gas {because gases expand as they are heated).
Results:

The volume of the air has decreased because the oxygen has beenremoved as it reacts with the copper.
The reaction that occurs is
2Cu0(s) + O2 = 2CuO
copper + oxygen --. copper{II) oxide
We can work out from these data that the volume of oxygen that reacted was 100 - 79 = 21 cm3.
The original volume of air was 100cm3 so we can work out thepercentage of oxygen in the air:
percentage oxygen = 21/100 x 100 = 21%
Using the rusting of iron

 Put wet iron filings into the conical flask.

 Record the initial reading on the gas syringe.
 Leave the apparatus in place for about a week, until the reading on the gas syringe stops
changing.
 Record the final reading on the gas syringe.
Results
.

So, the total volume of air inside the apparatus at the beginning of the experiment is 130 + 12 + 92 =
234cm3.
The total volume of 'air' in the apparatus at the end = 130 + 12 + 43 = 185cm3
Volume of oxygen used up = 234 - 185 = 49 cm3
The percentage of oxygen in the air is 49/234 x 100 = 21 %.

Sometimes when you do this experiment, the answer comes out as less than 21 %. Possible reasons
for this could be:
• The experiment was not left set up for long enough. The iron has not had enough chance to react with
all the oxygen in the apparatus.
• Not enough iron was added at the beginning. The iron must be in excess, that is, there must be enough
iron to react with all the oxygen present.

Using phosphorus

 Add Phosphorus onto an evaporating dish and place it on a trough of water, making sure it is
floating
  Ignite Phosphorus using a candle
 Cover this with a bell jar
 Measure and note the starting height of the water level in the bell jar
 Leave apparatus for several days
 Measure and note the final height of the water level in the bell jar
Results:
 After several days, the water will rise up the bell jar and reach a constant level as the
Phosphorus will use up Oxygen in the air in order to burn (air is one of the three elements that a
fire needs)
 The water level will rise to replace the volume of Oxygen lost during this reaction

The combustion of elements in oxygen

Combustion: A chemical reaction involving burning

The properties of oxides

Metal oxides
 Metal oxides are ionic compounds containing 0 2- ions.
 Metal oxides are usually basic oxides, which means that they react with acids to form salts.
 Metal oxides are usually insoluble in water. Those metal oxides that are soluble in water react
with it to form alkaline solutions containing hydroxide (OH-) ions.
Non-metal oxides
 Non-metal oxides are covalent compounds.
 Non-metal oxides are usually acidic oxides, which react with alkalis/bases to form salts.
 Non-metal oxides are often soluble in water and react with it to form acidic solutions containing
hydrogen (H+) ions.

Carbon dioxides
Thermal Decomposition: Breaking down using heat
Thermal Decomposition of Metal Carbonates:
Carbon Dioxide is produced when metal carbonates are heated through thermal decomposition:
Metal Carbonate      →      Metal  Oxide     +      Carbon Dioxide

Example: Copper (II) Carbonate

a green powder which decomposes on heating to produce black copper(II) oxide:
CuCOs(s) --, CuO(s) + C02(g)
Carbon dioxide and global warming: the greenhouse effect
Carbon Dioxide: Greenhouse Gas that contributes to climate change when in increased amounts.
Absorbs infrared radiation and heats up. Air gets warm as carbon dioxide absorbs radiation from
sunlight.
Greenhouse Effect: Caused by the increased concentration and effect of Greenhouse gases.

Explanation:
1. The Sun emits rays that enter the Earth’s Atmosphere
2. The heat is emitted back from the Earth’s surface
3. Some heat is reflected back out into Space
4. But some heat is absorbed by Greenhouse gasses Such as Carbon Dioxide and is trapped within
the Earth’s Atmosphere so causes the Earth’s average temperature to rise as a result
Consequences:
 Climate change due to increase in Earth’s temperature
 Water levels will rise as glaciers will melt because of high temperatures, causes flooding in low-
lying countries
 Extinction of species due to inhabitable environment
 Migration of species as they will move to areas that are more habitable (no droughts)
 Spread of diseases caused by the cold climate
 Loss of habitat due to climate change (animals that live on glaciers)
 REACTIVITY SERIES

Displacement reactions involving oxygen

Displacement Reaction: A reaction in which a more reactive metal replaces a less
reactive one.
 Reactivity of metals increases up the reactivity series.
 This means that a metal will displace another metal that is below it in
the reactivity series.
Magnesium powder and copper(II) oxide are mixed together and heated very
strongly. At the end, traces of white magnesium oxide are left on the ceramic
paper.
magnesium + copper(II) oxide --, magnesium oxide + copper
Mg{s) + CuO(s) --, MgO(s) + Cu{s)

This is an example of a displacement reaction. The less reactive metal, copper, has
been displaced from its compound by the more reactive magnesium. Any metal
higher in the reactivity series will displace one lower down from a compound.

Oxidation and reduction

 A substance has been oxidised if it gains oxygen. Oxidation is gain of oxygen.
 A substance has been reduced if it loses oxygen. Reduction is loss of oxygen.
 A redox reaction is one in which both reduction and oxidation are occurring.
 An oxidising agent is something that oxidises something else by taking electrons away from it.
Oxidising agents accept electrons and therefore are reduced in a reaction.
 A reducing agent is something that reduces something else by giving electrons to it. Reducing
agents give away electrons and therefore are oxidised in a reaction.
Example of redox reaction:

Electron transfer
Mg(s) + CuO(s) --, MgO{s) + Cu(s)
The magnesium and the copper are metals, and are made of metal atoms, but the copper{II) oxide and
the magnesium oxide are both ionic compounds. The copper(II) oxide contains Cu2+ and 02- ions, and
the magnesium oxide contains Mg2+ and 0 2- ions. Writing these into the equation gives:
Mg(s) + cu2+0 2-{s) --, Mg2+0 2-(s) + Cu(s)
The oxide ion (02-) does not change in this reaction. It ends up with a different partner, but is totally
unchanged itself.
The magnesium atoms lose electrons to form magnesium ions. These electrons are gained by the
copper ions to form copper atoms. To understand what is happening better we need a more
fundamental definition of oxidation and reduction:
 Oxidation is loss of electrons, reduction is gain of electrons.
Displacement reactions involving solutions of salts
Any Metal will displace another metal that is below it in the reactivity series from a solution of one of its
salts.
Example:  Zinc and Copper (II) Sulfate Solution
As Zinc is above copper in the reactivity series, Zinc is more reactive so can displace copper from Copper
(II) Sulfate solution:
Zn (s)     +     CuSO4 (aq)      →     ZnSO4 (aq)     +     Cu (s)
Other Common Reactions:

We can see that the sulfate ions are exactly the same on both sides of the equation - they have not
changed at all in the reaction. We call the sulfate ions here spectator ions.
Removing the spectator ions (because they aren't changed during the reaction) leaves:
Zn(s) + Cu2+ (aq) -+ Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)
This is called an ionic equation and just shows the things that change in the reaction.
We can split up the ionic equation to show the individual oxidation and reduction processes:
Zn(s) --- Zn2+(aq) + 2e- oxidation
Cu2+(aq) + 2e- ----Cu(s) reduction
These are called ionic half-equations as they each only show one of the processes (either oxidation or
reduction) occurring in the reaction.

Reactions of metals with water

Metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series react with water (or steam) to produce hydrogen.
If the metal reacts with cold water, the metal hydroxide and hydrogen are formed.
metal + cold water .... metal hydroxide + hydrogen
If the metal reacts with steam, the metal oxide and hydrogen are formed.
metal + steam --+ metal oxide + hydrogen
As you move down the reactivity series, the reactions become less and less vigorous. Metals below
hydrogen in the reactivity series (such as copper) don't react with water or steam. This is why copper
can be used for both hot and cold water pipes.

Examples
REACTIONS OF POTASSIUM, SODIUM OR LITHIUM WITH COLD WATER
They are very vigorous reactions, but become less violent in the following order: potassium > sodium >
lithium. The equations all look like this:
2M(s) + 2H20(1) --> 2MOH(aq) + H2(g)
Replace M by K, Na or Li, depending on which metal you want.
REACTION OF CALCIUM WITH COLDWATER
Calcium reacts gently with cold water. The grey granules sink, but are carried
back to the surface again as bubbles of hydrogen are formed around them.
The mixture becomes warm as heat is produced.
Calcium hydroxide is formed. This isn't very soluble in water. Some of it dissolves
to give a colourless solution, but most of it is left as a white, insoluble solid.
Ca(s) + 2H2O(1) -+ Ca(OH),(aq or s) + H,(g)

REACTION OF MAGNESIUM WITH COLDWATER

There is almost no reaction. If the magnesium is very clean, a few bubbles of hydrogen form on it, but
the reaction soon stops again. This is because the magnesium becomes coated with insoluble
magnesium hydroxide, which prevents any more water coming into contact with the magnesium.

REACTION OF MAGNESIUM WITH STEAM

The mineral wool isn't heated directly. Enough heat moves
back along the test-tube to turn the water to steam.
The magnesium burns with a bright white flame in the steam,
Producing hydrogen, which can be ignited at the end of the
delivery tube. White magnesium oxide is formed:
Mg(s) + Hp(g) -+ MgO(s) + H2(g)

REACTIONS OF ZINC OR IRON WITH STEAM

With both zinc and iron, the hydrogen comes off slowly
enough to be collected. Neither metal burns.
WITH ZINC
Zinc oxide is formed. This is yellow when it is hot, but
white on cooling.
Zn(s) + H20(g) --+ ZnO(s) + H2(g)
WITH IRON
The iron becomes slightly darker grey. A complicated oxide
is formed, called tri-iron tetroxide, Fe30 4:
3Fe(s) + 4H20(g) .... Fe3P4(s) + 4H2(g)

Practical: investigating meals and dilute acids

Reactions between Dilute Hydrochloric and Sulfuric Acid with Metals:
Acids react with most metals and, when they do, a salt and hydrogen gas is produced:
Metal    +   Hydrochloric  Acid     →     Metal Chloride    +    Hydrogen
Metal    +        Sulfuric  Acid         →     Metal Sulfate       +    Hydrogen
  Set up four test-tubes and put about 2 cm3 of dilute hydrochloric acid into each one.
 Put a small piece of magnesium, zinc, iron or copper into each test-tube and observe any
reaction that occurs.
 If there is fizzing, collect or trap the gas and test with a lighted splint -a squeaky pop indicates
the presence of hydrogen gas.
 Repeat the experiments with dilute sulfuric acid.

Reaction with Dilute Hydrochloric Acid or Sulfuric Acid

Metals above hydrogen react with acids to form a salt (e.g. magnesium sulfate or zinc chloride) and
hydrogen. The higher the metal in the series, the more violent the reaction.
metal + acid —. salt + hydrogen
metal + dilute sulfuric acid — metal sulfate + hydrogen
metal + dilute hydrochloric acid —. metal chloride + hydrogen
.
Rusting of iron
Rust: A chemical reaction between Iron, Water and Oxygen to form Iron (III) Oxide. The corrosion of
iron.
 Conditions: Oxygen and Water must be present for rust to occur
 Presence of sodium chloride increases speed of rusting
Iron    +    Water    +    Oxygen    →    Hydrated Iron (III) Oxide
4Fe (s) + 3O2 (g) + 2xH2O (l) → 2Fe2O3xH2O (s)

Prevention of Rust
Barrier Methods:
 Rust can be prevented by coating iron with barriers that prevent the Iron from coming into
contact with water and Oxygen.
 However, if the coatings are washed away or scratched, the Iron is once again exposed to water
and Oxygen and will rust.

Galvanizing / Sacrificial Protection:

 Iron can be prevented from rusting using the reactivity series.
 Galvanizing is when the iron is coated with a layer of zinc. ZnCO3 is formed when zinc reacts
with oxygen in the air. This protects the iron by barrier method.
 If the coating is damaged or scratched, the iron is still protected from rusting by the sacrificial
method (magnesium can also be used).
  This is because zinc is more reactive than iron so it reacts with oxygen and water and corrodes
instead of the iron.

EXTRACTION AND USES OF METALS

Extracting metals from their ores

 Most metals are found in the Earth's crust combined with other elements. The individual
compounds are called minerals.
 An ore is a sample of rock that contains enough of a mineral for it to be worthwhile to extract
the metal.
 Most metals are extracted from ores found in the Earth's crust. A few very unreactive metals
are found native. (exist naturally as the uncombined element.)
 The Earth’s Crust contains metals and metal compounds such as Gold, Iron Oxide and
Aluminium Oxide, but when found in the Earth, these are often mixed with other substances.
 To be useful, the metals have to be extracted from their ore through processes such as
electrolysis, using a blast furnace or by reacting with more reactive material.
 Extraction is a reduction process.
 Unreactive metals do not have to be extracted as they are often found as the uncombined
element as they do not easily react with other metals to form impure compounds.

Methods of Metal Extraction

1. Blast furnace
Raw Materials: Iron Ore (Haematite), Coke, Limestone
and Air

Explanation:
Iron Ore, Coke and Limestone are mixed together and fed
into the top of the blast furnace. Hot air is blasted into the
bottom of the blast furnace.
Coke is used as the starting material. It is an impure carbon
and it burns in the hot air blast to form carbon dioxide.
This is strongly exothermic reaction:
C (s)    +    O2 (g)    →    CO2 (g)
At the high temperatures in the furnace, carbon dioxide
reacts with coke to form carbon monoxide:
CO2 (g)    +    C (s)    →    2CO (g)
Carbon Monoxide (the reducing agent) reduces the Iron (III)
Oxide in the Iron Ore to form Iron, which will melt and
collect at the bottom of the furnace, where it is tapped off:
Fe2O3 (s)    +    3CO (g)    →    2Fe (l)    +    3CO2 (g)
Limestone is added to the furnace to remove impurities in
the ore. The Calcium Carbonate in the limestone
decomposes to form calcium Oxide:
CaCO3 (s)    →    CaO (s)    +    CO2 (g)
The Calcium Oxide reacts with the Silicon Dioxide, which is an impurity in the Iron Ore, to form Calcium
Silicate which melts and collects as a molten slag floating on top of the molten Iron and is tapped off
separately:
CaO (s)    →    SiO2 (s)    +    CaSiO3 (l)

2. Electrolysis
Raw Materials: Aluminium Ore (Bauxite)

Explanation:
The Bauxite is first purified to produce Aluminium Oxide Al 2O3
Aluminium Oxide has a very high melting point so is dissolved in molten Cryolite to make the electrolyte
with a lower melting point, as well as a better conductor of electricity than molten aluminium oxide. This
reduces expense.
The electrolyte is a solution of aluminium oxide in molten cryolite at a temperature of about 1000 °C.
The molten aluminium is siphoned off from time to time and fresh aluminium oxide is added to the cell.
The cell operates at 5-6 volts and with current 100,000 amps. The heat generated by the huge current
keeps the electrolyte molten.
A lot of electricity is required for this process of extraction, this is a major expense.
Reaction at the Negative Electrode:
The Aluminium melts and collects at the bottom of the cell and is then tapped off:
Al3+    +    3e–    →    Al
Reaction at the Positive Electrode:
2O2-    –    4e–    →    O2
Some of the Oxygen Produced at the positive electrode then reacts with the Graphite (Carbon)
electrode to produce Carbon Dioxide Gas:
C (s)    +    O2 (g)    →    CO2 (g)
*This causes the carbon anodes to burn away, so they must be replaced regularly.

There are two main economic factors to take into account:

 the cost of energy
 the cost of the reducing agent.
Alloys
Alloy: A mixture of a metal and one or more elements, usually other metals or carbon
 Alloys often have properties that are different to the metals they contain, making them more
useful than the pure metals alone.
 Alloys are often harder than pure metal as they contain atoms of different sizes, which distorts
the regular arrangements of atoms
 This makes it more difficult for the layers to slide over each other, making it harder and stronger
than pure metal (atoms in pure metals are the same size in regular arrangement so can slide
over each other easily).

Uses of Metals
Uses of Aluminium
Aluminium alloys are often used instead of pure aluminium to increase strength.

Uses of steel

Uses of copper
 ACIDS, ALKALINES AND TITRATION

pH and indicator
pH Scale: Some acids are weaker than others. It is the same with alkalis. The strength of an acid or alkali
is shown using the pH scale which goes from 0 to 14.
On this scale,
 An acidic solution has a pH number less than 7.
 An alkaline solution has a pH number greater than 7.
 A neutral solution has a pH number of exactly 7.
The smaller the number the stronger the acid. The larger the number the stronger the alkaline.

Measuring pH
Universal indicator
Universal Indicator: Supplied as a solution or as a paper and has a range of colours to specifically
identify the pH of a solution.
Use of Universal Indicator to Measure pH of Aqueous Solution:
 If using universal indicator solution, a few drops of this solution is added to the aqueous solution
and colour change is observed and matched to specific pH using the pH scale.
 If using universal indicator paper, this paper is dipped into the aqueous solution and colour
change is observed and matched to specific pH using the pH scale.
Universal Indicator and pH Scale:
The colour change of the universal indicator is matched to a specific colour on the pH scale, which tells
the approximate pH.

Litmus
 Litmus indicator solution turns red in acidic solutions, blue in alkaline solutions and turns purple
in neutral solutions.
 Litmus paper is usually more reliable and comes as red litmus paper and blue litmus paper.

Purple
Phenolphthalein & Methyl Orange
 Phenolphthalein changes colour sharply at about pH 8 and is commonly used in titrations.
 Methyl Orange is a solution and changes into a range of warm colours.

Acids
 We can define acids as substances that act as a source of hydrogen ions (H+) in solution.
 All acids contain hydrogen and when acids react the hydrogen is replaced by something else; all
acids have replaceable H.
 For example, when hydrochloric acid reacts with sodium hydroxide we obtain:
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) --. NaCl(aq) + H20(l)
 The H of the HCI has been replaced by an Na. Not all of the hydrogens in acids are replaceable,
for example in ethanoic acid only the H attached to the O is replaceable, not the ones joined to
the C.
 When acids are in water they dissociate (break apart) to form hydrogen ions (H+), for example
HCl(aq) --. H+(aq) + CJ-(aq)
HNO,(aq)--. H+(aq) + N0 3-(aq)
H2SO.(aq) ... 2H+(aq) + so,2-(aq)
 When we are measuring pH we are actually measuring the concentration of these H+ ions in the
solution. This is why the H in pH is written with a capital letter.

Bases
 Bases are substances that neutralize acids by combining with the hydrogen ions in them.

Alkaline
 Some bases dissolve in water to form solutions containing hydroxide ions. These are alkalis.
 Alkalis are a source of hydroxide (OH-) ions in solution. Examples of alkalis are sodium hydroxide
and potassium hydroxide (all the Group 1 hydroxides).
 When sodium hydroxide is in water it breaks apart to form sodium and hydroxide ions:
NaOH(aq) --. Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
 The other alkali you will meet is a solution of ammonia (NH3).
 The ammonia reacts with the water to form ammonium ions and hydroxide ions:
NH3(aq) + H2O(l) .= NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)

Reacting acids with bases and alkalis

Neutralization: A Reaction in which Acidity or Alkalinity is removed.
 Acids react with bases or alkalis in a neutralisation reaction
 When an alkali is added to an acid, the pH of the mixture rises as the alkali reacts with it forming
a neutral solution.
 When an acid is added to an alkali, the pH of the mixture falls as the acid reacts with it forming a
neutral solution.
Neutralisation Reaction:
A Neutralisation reaction involving an acid and base (alkali) will always produce a salt and water:
Acid    +    Base (Alkali)   →    Salt    +    Water
When the H+ Ions from an acid react with the OH – ions from an alkali, this forms water, causing the
neutral solution to be formed:
H+ (aq)    +    OH– (aq)   →    H2O (l)

The name of the Salt produced can be predicted:

Titration

Titration: A method to determine the exact volume of one solution that will react with a given volume
of another solution
Titration is a quantitative experimental technique used in neutralisation reactions between acids and
alkalis. It involves adding an acid from a burette into a conical flask containing the alkali. A pipette is
used to measure out the exact volume of alkali and an indicator is added so the end point of the
titration can be seen.

Method:
 Use pipette to measure alkali solution into conical flask
 Add drops of indicator (Phenolphthalein or Methyl Orange)
 Add acid into burette and note the starting volume
 Add acid in burette into alkali in flask continuously swirling until indicator changes to colour
indicating the solution is neutral.
 Note the final volume of acid in burette
 Repeat until you have three concordant results (within 0.1 of each other)
Indicators
 Universal indicator is not used as there is no end-point, it is difficult to see when the colour
changes.
 Phenolphthalein or Methyl Orange is used as there is an end-point so is easy to see the colour
change.
Calculation
Volume of Acid Added     =     Starting Volume of Acid     –     Final Volume of Acid

The volume of alkali added is obtained by subtracting the initial reading from the final reading:
volume of alkali = 23.85 - 2 .1 0 = 21 . 75 cm3
Reading the burette
When reading a burette it is important to remember that the numbers increase from the top to the
bottom: 0 is at the top and 50 is at the bottom.
 ACIDS, BASES AND SALT PREPERATION

Salts
 A salt is a compound that is formed when the hydrogen atom in an acid is replaced by a metal
 For example if we replace the H in HCl with a potassium atom, then the salt potassium chloride
is formed, KCl
 Salts are an important branch of chemistry due to the varied and important uses of this class of
compounds

Reactions of acids
 Metals below hydrogen in the series don't react with dilute acids.
 Metals above hydrogen in the series react to produce hydrogen gas.
 The higher the metal is in the reactivity series, the more vigorous the reaction.
 When acids react with metals they form a salt and hydrogen gas:
Acid    +    Metal   →    Salt    +    Hydrogen
Examples of reaction between acids and metals:

Acids with Bases

 Metal oxides and metal hydroxides can act as bases
 When they react with acid, a neutralisation reaction occurs
 In all acid-base neutralisation reactions, salt and water are produced
Acid    +    Base   →    Salt    +    Water
Examples of reaction between acids and bases:
Acids with metal carbonates
 Acids will react with metal carbonates to form the corresponding metal salt, carbon dioxide and
water:
Acid  +  Metal Carbonate → Salt  +  Carbon Dioxide  +  Water
Examples of reaction between acids and carbonates:

Metal oxides and acids

 The general equation for the reaction of a metal oxide (base) with an acid
 This is a neutralisation reaction - the base neutralises the acid (water is formed).
Metal Oxide + Acid → Salt + Water
Examples of reaction between metal oxides and acid:

Metal hydroxides and acids

 All metal hydroxides react with acids in a neutralisation reaction:
Metal Hydroxide + Acid → Salt + Water
Examples of reaction between metal hydroxide and acids

Salt preparation
 Some salts can be extracted by mining but others need to be prepared in the laboratory.
 There are two key ideas to consider when preparing salts:
o Is the salt being formed soluble or insoluble in water?
o Is there water of crystallisation present in the salt crystals?

Naming salts
 The name of a salt has two parts
 The first part comes from the metal, metal oxide or metal carbonate used in the reaction
 The second part comes from the acid
  The name of the salt can be determined by looking at the reactants
 For example hydrochloric acid always produces salts that end in chloride and contain
the chloride ion, Cl–
 Other examples:
o Sodium hydroxide reacts with hydrochloric acid to produce sodium chloride
o Zinc oxide reacts with sulfuric acid to produce zinc sulfate

Note that:
 all sodium, potassium and ammonium compounds are soluble
 all nitrates are soluble most common chlorides are soluble, except lead(II) chloride and silver
 chloride
 most common sulfates are soluble, except lead(II) sulfate, barium sulfate, silver sulfate and
calcium sulfate
 most common carbonates are insoluble, except sodium, potassium and ammonium carbonates
 most metal hydroxides are insoluble (or almost insoluble), except sodium, potassium and
ammonium hydroxides. Calcium hydroxide is slightly soluble in water.

Preparing soluble salts

These all involve reacting a solid with an acid. You can use any of the following mixtures:
 acid + metal (but only for the moderately reactive metals from magnesium to iron in the
reactivity series)
 acid + metal oxide or hydroxide
 acid + carbonate

Practical: making copper (ll) sulfate crystals

 Add dilute acid into a beaker and heat using a bunsen burner flame
  Add the copper (ll) sulfate, a little at a time, to the warm dilute acid and stir until the base is in
excess (i.e. until the base stops disappearing and a suspension of the base forms in the acid)
 Filter the mixture into an evaporating basin to remove the excess base
 Heat the solution to evaporate water and to make the solution saturated. Check the solution is
saturated by dipping a cold, glass rod into the solution and seeing if crystals form on the end
 Leave the filtrate in a warm place to dry and crystallize
 Decant excess solution and allow crystals to dry

The equation for the formation of the solution is: