BROWNIAN MOTION

Brownian motion : Random motion of particles seen through naked eye or microscope
Atoms : Smallest Particles, can not be broken down
Molecule : Two or more atoms joined together
Ions : Atoms/Molecules that carry a charge

Melting : Solid is heated, particles get energy,more vibration, solid keeps expanding, particles
move far away from eachother
Boiling :
- liquid is heated, particles get energy, more vibrations
- liquid keeps expanding, particles escape
Evaporation :
- Some particles have more energy, escape faster before boiling point
- most particles escape during boiling point
Melting point : The temperature in which solid particles vibrate so much and starts changing
to liquid 0°C for water
Boiling point : The temperature in which liquid particles vibrate even more and starts
changing to gas. 100°C for water
. Bubbles form during boiling because trapped particles trying to escape

Do all substances melt and boil at the same and boil at the same temperature?
no, particles are different, force are different ,Stronger force SO more heat energy needed to
break force SO higher melting and boiling point
Does temperature change while ice is melting or water is boiling?
No, it is constant until the state changes
Do all solids go through a liquid phase?
Sublimation- solid to gas eg: Carbon dioxide
. sublimation occur When the total pressure of the atmosphere is less than the
vapor pressure of compound, and melting has not happened yet because it is
not hot enough.
. Freezing and melting point is the same because when particles are solid, they
have a tendency to gain heat. -when particles are liquid, they have a tendency to
release heat. -The temperature in which particles totally melt or totally freeze are
not the same
 Particle arrangement:
Solid:
Pattern: fixed
Force : strong
Vibration : jiggle
Gases pressure depends on:
Temperature of gas:
liquid: gas:
Pattern: close together Pattern: no pattern
but not fixed Force : none
Force : weaker Vibration : a lot causing collisions
Vibration : more
Volume it takes up:

Lower temp Higher temp Higher volume lower volume

When you heat gas in closed When you compress the container,pressure
container,pressure increases increases

Gase rate of diffusion depends on:

Temperature of gas: Particle mass:

Lower temp Higher temp 17 36

When you heat gas , particles move Lower mass Higher mass
away faster so diffusion is faster When mass (relative molecular mass in
this case) is lower,Diffusion is faster

Mixture:Substances mixed together and not fully combined.

Eg: Air = oxygen + nitrogen + other
Solution : when a solute dissolves in a solvent it is called a solution. Fully combined
Eg: Sugar water

How to make solute more soluble?? A soluble

solute becomes more soluble in higher
tempuratures
But there is a threshhold!
A solution is Called saturated when it can no
longer dissolve solute at that temperature
How to make solute more soluble??
Does stirring make a solute more soluble??
stirring helps dissolve the solute faster but
doesnt make it more soluble.

When water is the solvent, the solution is called aqueous solution.

Water is not the only solvent!!
Volatile
Volatile

Volatile: evaporates easily because forces between its particles are weak (low boiling point).

Pure substance: substances that has no other substances mixed with it.
WHEN IS PURITY IMPORTANT?
medical drugs- food flavoring -baby food and milk
An unwanted substance mixed with the wanted substance is called – impurity
HOW CAN YOU TELL IF A SUBSTANCE IS PURE?
CHECK MELTING AND BOILING POINTS FROM THE TABLE.
TRY TO MELT OR BOIL SUBSTANCE.
THE SUBSTANCE IS IMPURE IF :
1.MELTING POINT FALLS.
2.BOILING POINT RISES.
3.IT MELTS OR BOILS IN A RANGE OF
TEMPURATERS.
HOW DO YOU KNOW HOW IMPURE THE SUBSTANCE IS
1- The bigger the change in melting and boiling points, the more impure.
2- The wider the tempurate range is, the more impure.

1-Filtering
If solid is insoluble in liquid, use filter paper to trap solid
eg: chalk in water

2-Crystalzation
If solid is soluble in liquid, cool the solution to
lower solubility.
1- heat solution so solute becomes
concentrated. 2-solution becomes saturated.
3-allow saturated solution to cool.
4-obtain solid crystals
5- filter, rinse, dry.
eg: copper sulfate in water

3- Evaporate solvent
if solubility isn't reduced enough with cooling,
try evapouration
1- heat untill all solvent is gone.
eg: salt in water
Two solid separation
1.Add solvent for only one solute 2.Filter mixture
3.Rinse residue to get first solute
4.Evaporate the filtrate to get the second solute (or crystalize).

LIQUID FROM SOLUTION

Simple distillation
Evaporation and condensation of solvent
1- Heat solution in flask connected to condenser.
2- Liquid evaporates
3- solid stays in flask
4- Vapor condenses in condenser
5- Liquid drips into beaker
(If liquid is water you get distilled water).
LIQUID FROM LIQUID
Fractional distillation
Different boiling points of substances.
1- Heat mixture.
2- Liquids evaporates.
3- Vapor condenses on glass beads.
4- One liquid drips into beaker.
5- When temperature changes it means first liquid is all
condensed.
(If liquid is water you get distilled water).
SUBSTANCE FROM MIXTURE
• CHROMATOGRAM
Paper chromatography
• Yellow is most soluble
Different solubility of substances for solvents • Blue is least soluble
and paper.
1-place drop of substance in middle
2-place 3-4 more drops after it dries
3-drip water on same place
4-substances seperate
ANOTHER USE OF PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY
-Identify substances
-Purify one of the substances
Mixture of known substances.
1-prepare concentrated solutions of all substances
2-draw line on chromatography paper
3-place spot for each substance and the unknown mixture at
edge
4-stand paper in solvent that dissolves all substances
5-remove when solvent is near the top
6-check substance x separation
WHAT IF MIXTURE GAVE COLORLESS SUBSTANCES
1-prepare concentrated solutions of all substances
2-draw base line on slotted chromatography paper
3-place spot for each substance and the unknown mixture
at edge
4-stand paper in solvent that dissolves all substances

5-remove when solvent is near the top and

line with pencil (solvent front)
dry in oven
add locating agent and put in oven for 10
mins
mark dot at center of spots and measure
both from base line to dot and solvent front

Rf value = Distance traveled by the

substance (a)/Distance traveled by the
solvent front (b)

Rf value is always the same in given

solvents under same conditions.

EXAMPLE

Rf value = ? (a)/?(b)= 0.08

ATOMS : SMALLEST PARTICLES OF MATTER, THAT WE CANNOT BREAK DOWN FURTHER BY
CHEMICAL MEANS.
CONSISTS OF A NUCLEUS (P+N) AND A
CLOUD OF PARTICLES CALLED ELECTRONS.
-PROTONS NUMBER- The number of protons in the nucleus. Also called as the atomic
number.
-ELECTRONS- has an equal number of protons.
-NUCLEONS- protons and neutron from the nucleus.
-NUCLEON NUMBER- total number of protons and neutrons. Also called as the mass number
or atomic mass.
-ALL- sub-atomic particles.

AN ELEMENT CONTAINS ONLY ONE KIND OF

ATOM (PERIODIC TABLE)
-90 natural elements
-30 artificial that are usually very unstable

PERIODIC TABLE
• It gives the names and symbols of
elements.
• GROUPS- the elements in form families
• PERIODS- rows
• ZIGZAG- metal _ non-metal

PROTON NUMBER: NUMBER OF PROTONS IN NUCLEUS (ATOMIC NUMBER)

ELECTRON NUMBER: EQUAL NUMBERS WITH PROTONS IN ATOMS( NO CHARGE) -
NUCLEON NUMBER: NUMBER OF PROTONS+ NUETRONS IN NUCLEUS (MASS NUMBER) -
UNDER ELEMENT
NEUTRON NUMBER???
PROTON NUMBER- NUCLEON NUMBER

ATOMS
• ELECTRON NUMBER CAN CHANGE WHEN
AN ATOM BECOMES IONIC
• NEUTRON NUMBER IS NOT STABLE AND
CAN CHANGE
• WHAT CAN YOU IDENTIFY AN ATOM BY?
PROTON NUMBER
 SO WHAT ARE ISOTOPES?
-Atoms of the same element which have the same proton number but different nucleon
number
-The atomic mass of each isotope is different (different # of neutrons) so we calculate the
relative atomic mass

SO WHAT ARE ISOTOPES?

-Relative atomic mass (Ar): the average atomic mass of its naturally occurring isotopes in
relation to carbon-12 atom
-eg: chlorine 2 isotopes:
1- Cl-35 (17p+18n) --- 75%
2- Cl-37 (17p+20n) ---25%
Ar: (0.75*35) + (0.25*37)= 35.5
-What if #of electrons changed? does the mass change?? No, the change is very
insignificant.
IMPORTANCE OF CARBON ATOM
• CARBON HAS 3 ISOTOPES

-Nucleon number- ??
Carbon has the same whole number in
relative atomic mass and atomic mass of its
main isotope

-Do isotopes have different chemical

properties?
-No, because electron numbers are still the
same

SOME ISOTOPES ARE RADIOACTIVE

When an atom's nucleus becomes unstable, it may become radioactive
Radioactive - nucleus is unstable therefore atom decays and gives
radiation

SO IF ISOTOPE IS RADIOACTIVE IT IS CALLED A

RADIOISOTOPE
WE DONT KNOW HOW MUCH TIME AN ISOTOPE WILL TAKE TO DECAY SO WE USE HALF
LIFE KNOWLEDGE
THE HALF LIFE OF AN ISOTOPE :How long it
takes for half the isotopes to decay

Half life = 5730

RADIATION FORMS:

RADIATION SICKNESS : When radioisotopes

get in your body and kill your cells

1-GEIGER COUNTER : A device that detects radioisotopes - used to check for oil and gas leak
2-RADIOTHERAPY : Cobalt-60 Gamma rays in radiation kill cancer cells more readily than
normal body cells

3-STERALIZATION : Cobalt-60/ caesium-137 kill germs in medical equipment and food

4-CARBON DATING : Carbon-14 from food stays in our body (only half the atoms take 5730
years to decay)

5-FUEL : Used as fuel in nuclear power stations, better than oil and gas

ELECTRON SHELLS :
Every shell has an enerrgy level first- lowest energy level
last- highest energy level
ELECTRON HOLDING ABILITY FOR FIRST 20 ELEMENTS :
First shell can hold only 2 electrons
Second shell can hold 8 electrons
Third shell can hold 18 (8 IN 3, 2 IN 4, REST IN 3 AGAIN)

ELECTRON HOLDING ABILITY :

Distribution of electrons of atom: 2,8,8

Elecrtron distribution in first 20 elements

Orbitals
2 e- max

6 e- max

10 e- max

ELEMENTS AFTER CALCIUM RULES

• CHECK GROUP NUMBER CHECK PERIOD NUMBER
• FIRST SHELL=2
• SECOND SHELL=8
• THIRD SHELL=18
• FOURTH SHELL= 32
• THIRD SHELL FILLS 8 ELECTRONS,THEN TWO GO TO FOURTH SHELL, THEN THE REST FILL
UP SHELL 3

Element : Contains only one kind of atom

Compound :Contains atoms of different elements chemically bonded
Mixture : Contains different substances that are not bonded together
COMPOUNDS
Described using formulas made from atom symbols

Notice the small numbers after elements

it is number of atoms needed in a compound so they all become stable
Difference between compounds and mixtures
Mixtures are formed physically.can be separated easily by dissolving/filtering
Eg:iron and sulfur are just mixed together
Compounds are formed chemically and need special techniques to be seperated
Eg:heated iron and sulfur glow brightly and form a compound Fes

KIND OF CHANGE
Chemical change Physical change
CHEMICAL REACTION:
• One or more new chemical • No new chemical substance is formed
substances form • If it is soluble you can just evaporate or filter it
• Energy taken in or given out • Change is easy to reverse
• Change difficult to reverse

why do atoms form bonds?

Atoms bond with each other to gain a stable
arrangement of outer shell e- (8 or 2)
what does sodium (group 1) need to do to get a stable outer shell?

It becomes a positive ion (cation) - Charge?

Symbol?
what does chlorine (group 7) need to do to get a stable outer shell?
So an ion is a charged
particle. it is charged
because no. of e- and p+
is not equal

It becomes a negative ion (anion) - Charge? Symbol?

ionic bond
When two ions have opposite charges (- & +) they attract each other in a strong force
Eg:

Na + Sodium ion had a positive charge The charge of the compound is 0(no charge)
Cl – Chloride ion had a negative charge because +1-1=0
When we have multiple atoms of each it forms a lattice and gives a
giant 3d structure

Eg2:

Mg +2 Magnesium ion had a positive charge of 2

O—2 oxide ion had a negative charge of 2
The charge of the compound is 0(no charge) because +2-2=0
The charge is not equal

1- Ionic bonds usually form between a metal

and a non-metal.
2- The charge of a stable ionic compound is
always zero. Not every element forms ions.
12-20 only are reactive

• Hydrogen and metals: lose e-, become + ions with same name
• Non- metals: gain e-, become - ions ending with ide
• Group 4 and 5 atoms usually do not form ions; they need to gain or lose a lot of e-
• Group 8 do not form ions ; they have a full outer shell
Eg:1
Ionic compound names and formula
Names
• Put name of both ions
• Metal is always first
Formula
• Write dow ionic compound name
• The symbols of its ions
• Balance ions so compound has zero charge
• Write dow formula without charge
• Eg:
• Lithium fluoride
• Sodium sulfide
Transition elements:
Some transition element only form one ion
eg: Silver ion Ag+, Zinc ion Zn2+
Most form more than one
eg: Iron (II) ion Fe2+, Iron (III) ion Fe3+, Copper (I) ion Cu+, Copper (II) ion Cu2+

GROUP OF ATOMS IONS

Some ions are formed from more than one atom
eg:
Ammonium ion (NH4)+
Hydroxide ion (OH)-
Carbonate ion (CO3)2-

Covalent bonds
Atoms can also gain a stable outer
shell by sharing electrons

Both nucleis attract both electrons forming a force of attraction called covalent bond
Molecules
Group of atoms held together by covalent bonds ( group of atoms that share electrons )
• Non- metals that are molecular
• I2
• O2
• S8
• 4.N2 etc..
• Diatomic: molecules containing 2 atoms

Number of bonds