Chemistry

Atoms

Atoms contain protons, neutrons and electrons

The nucleus
 Middle of the atom
 Contains protons and neutrons
 Positive charge
 Almost whole mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus

The electrons
 Move around the nucleus in electron shells
 Negatively charged
 Tiny – but cover a lot of space
 Volume of their orbit determines size of the atom
 Virtually – no mass

Particle Relative Mass Relative Charge

Proton 1 +1
Neutron 1 0
Electron Very small -1

Number of protons = electrons

 Atoms are neutral – have no charge
 Because same no. of protons and electrons
 Charge on the electrons is the same size as the charge on the protons, but opposite so
charges cancel out
 In an ion, the no. of protons does not equal electrons – this means it has an overall charge

Atomic number and mass number describe an atom

 Atomic no. – no. of protons and electrons
 Mass no. – total no. of protons and neutrons
Elements

Element – a substance made up of atoms that have the same no. of protons in their nucleus

Elements consist of atom with the same atomic number

 Atoms can have different no. of protons, neutrons and electrons. The no. of protons in the
nucleus that decides what type of atom it is
 If a substance only contains atoms with the same no. of protons it is called an element
 So all the atoms of a particular element have the same no of protons and different
elements have atoms with different no. of protons

Isotopes

Isotopes – different forms of the same element which have the SAME no. of protons but a
DIFFERENT no. of neutrons.
 Same atomic no. but different mass no.

Relative atomic mass – is an average mass taking into account the different masses and abundances
of all the isotopes that make up the element.

Relative atomic mass ( Ar )=

∑ of (isotope abundance ×isotope mass no .)
∑ of abundances of all the isotopes
Compounds

Atoms join together to make compounds

When elements react, atoms combine with other atoms to form compounds

Compounds – substances formed from two or more elements, the atoms of each are in fixed
proportions throughout the compound and they’re held together by chemical bonds

 Making bonds involves the atoms giving away or sharing electrons. Only the electrons are
involved
 It’s usually difficult to separate the original elements of a compound again

Ionic bonding
 A compound which is formed from a metal and a non-metal consists of ions. The metal
atoms lose electrons to form positive ions and the non-metal atoms gain electrons to form
negative ions.
The opposite charges of the ions mean that they are strongly attached to each other. This is
called ionic bonding. Exp. Sodium chloride

Covalent bonding
 A compound formed from non-metals consists of molecules. Each atom shares an electron
with another atom.
Exp. Hydrogen chloride gas, carbon monoxide, and water

The properties of a compound are usually different from the original elements.
Chemical Equations

Chemical changes are shown using chemical changes

Word equations
Exp.
Methane + Oxygen  Carbon Dioxide + Water

Symbol equations show the atoms on both sides

Symbol equations
Exp.
2Mg + O2  2MgO
Magnesium + oxygen  magnesium oxide

Symbol equations need to be balanced

Exp.
H2SO4 + NaOH  Na2SO4 + H2O
Formula is correct but the numbers don’t match up
H2SO4 + 2NaOH  Na2SO4 + 2H2O
Mixtures

Mixtures are easily separated

 No chemical bond between the different parts of the mixture
 the parts of a mixture can be either elements or compounds, and can be separated through
physical methods such as filtration, crystallisation, simple distillation fractional distillation
and chromatography

Air is a mixture of gases, mainly nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide and argon.
The gases can all be separated out fairly easily
Crude oil is a mixture of different length hydrocarbon molecules

 the properties of a mixture are just a mixture of the properties of the separate parts – the
chemical properties of a substance aren’t affected by it being part of a mixture

Exp. a mixture of iron powder and sulphur powder will show the properties of both sulphur and
iron. It will contain grey magnetic bits of iron and bright yellow bits of sulphur
Separating Techniques – Chromatography

1. Draw a line near the bottom of a sheet of filter paper. (Use a pencil to do this – pencil marks
are insoluble and won’t dissolve in the solvent)
2. Add a spot of the ink to the line and place the sheet in a beaker o solvent e.g. water
3. The solvent used depends on what is being tested. Some compounds dissolve well in water,
but sometimes others, like ethanol, are needed
4. The ink should not touch the solvent
5. Place a lid on top of the container to stop the solvent evaporating
6. the solvent seeps up the paper, carrying the ink with it.
7. Each different dye in the ink will move up the paper at different rates so the dyes will
separate out. Each dye will form a spot in a different place
8. If any of the dyes in the ink are insoluble in the solvent used, they’ll stay on the baseline
9. When the solvent has nearly reached the top of the paper take the paper out of the beaker
and leave it to dry.
10. The end result is a pattern of spots called a chromatogram

Separating Techniques – Filtration and Crystallisation

Filtration separates insoluble solids from liquids

Two ways to separate soluble solids from solutions

Evaporation
1. Pour the solution into an evaporating dish
2. Slowly heat the solution. The solvent will evaporate and the solution will get more
concentrated. Eventually, crystals will start to form
3. Keep heating until left are dry crystals

Crystallisation
1. Pour the solution into an evaporating dish and gently heat the solution. Some of the solvent
will evaporate and the solution will get more concentrated
2. Once some of the solvent has evaporated, or when crystals start to form (the point of
crystallisation), remove the dish from the heat and leave the solution to cool
3. The salt should start to form crystals as it becomes insoluble in the cold, highly concentrated
solution
4. Filter the crystals out of the solution, and leave them in a warm place to dry. Could also use
a drying oven or dessicator

Filtration and crystallisation can be used to separate rock salts

Salt and sand are both compounds – but salt dissolves in water and sand doesn’t. This is the vital
difference in their physical properties gives a great way to separate them
1. Grinding – grind the mixture to make sure the salt crystals are small, so will dissolve easily
2. Dissolving – put the mixture in water and stir. The salt will dissolve but the sand won’t
3. Filtering – filter the mixture. The grains of sand won’t fit through the holes of the filter
paper, so they collect on the paper instead. The salt passes through the filter paper as it’s
part of the solution
4. Evaporation – evaporate the water from the salt so that it forms dry crystals
REQUIRED PRACTICALS – Separating Techniques – Distillation

Simple distillation is used to separate out solutions

Is used for separating liquids from solutions.

The solution is heated, the part of the solution that has the lowest boiling point evaporates first.
The vapour is then cooled, condenses (turns back into a liquid) passes through the condensing tube
and is collected
The rest of the solution is left behind in the flask

Problem – can only use it to separate things with very different boiling points – if the temp goes
higher than the boiling point of the substance with the higher boiling point, they will mix again.

Fractional distillation is used to separate a mixture of liquids

1. Put the mixture in a flask and put a fractionating column on top. Then heat it
2. The different liquids will all have different B.P. – so they will evaporate at different temps.
3. The liquid with the lowest B.P. evaporates first. When the temp on top of the thermometer
matches the B.P. of this liquid, it will reach the top of the column
4. Liquids with higher B.P. might also start to evaporate. But the column is cooler towards the
top. So they will only get part of the way up before condensing and running back down
towards the flask
5. When the first liquid has been collected, you raise the temp until the next one reaches the
top
The History of the Atom

1. Start of 19th century, John Dalton…

- Atoms as solid spheres
- Different spheres made up the different elements

2. 1897, JJ Thompson – Plum pudding model…

- Atoms weren’t solid spheres
- His measurements of charge and mass showed that an atom must contain even smaller
negatively charges particles – electrons
- atom as a ball of positive charge with electrons in it

3. 1909, Ernest Rutherford – Plum Pudding was WRONG

- Alpha particle scattering experiments – fired positively charged alpha particles at an
extremely thin sheet of gold
- from the Plum Pudding Model, they were expecting the particles to pass straight
through the sheet or be slightly deflected at most. This was because the positive charge
of each atom was thought to be very spread out through the ‘pudding’ of the atom. But,
whilst most of the particles did go straight through the gold sheet, some were deflected
more than expected and a small number were deflected backwards.
- The Nuclear Model…
- Tiny positively charged nucleus at the centre, where most of the mass in concentrated. A
‘cloud’ of negative electrons surrounds this nucleus – so most of the atom is empty
space. When alpha particles came near the concentrated positive charge of the nucleus
they were deflected. If they were fired directly at the nucleus, they were deflected
backwards. Otherwise, they pass through empty space.
4. Bohr’s nuclear model…
- Scientists realised that electrons in a ‘cloud’ around the nucleus of an atom, as
Rutherford described, would be attracted to the nucleus, causing the atom to collapse
- His model suggested that all the electrons were contained in shells
- Proposed the idea that electrons orbit the nucleus in fixed shells and aren’t anywhere in
between. Each shell is a fixed distance from the nucleus
5. 20 years after scientists had accepted that atoms have nuclei, James Chadwick carried out an
experiment which provides evidence for neutral particles in the nucleus…
- Neutrons
-
Electronic Structure

Electron shell rules…

 Lowest energy levels are always filled first – these are the ones closest to the nucleus
 1st shell: 2; 2nd shell: 8; 3rd shell:8 etc.
 In most atoms, outer shell is not full and this makes the atom want to react

Development of the Periodic Table

In the early 1800s elements were arranged by atomic mass

Until recently, there were two obvious ways to categorise elements:
1. Physical and chemical properties
2. Relative atomic mass

Back then, the only thing they could measure was relative atomic mass and so the known elements
were arranged in order of atomic mass. When this was done, a periodic pattern was noticed in the
properties of the elements were placed in the order of relative atomic mass and did not take into
account their properties

Dmitri Mendeleev left gaps and predicted new elements

 1869, Mendeleev arranged the 50 known elements and arranging them into his Table of
Elements – with various gaps
 Put the mainly in order of atomic mass but did switch that order if the properties meant it
should be changed. Te and I – iodine has a smaller relative atomic mass but is placed after
Te as it has similar properties
 Gaps were left to make sure that elements with similar properties stayed in the same
groups. Some of these gaps indicated the existence of undiscovered elements and allowed
Mendeleev to predict what their properties might be.

The discovery of isotopes in the early 20th century, confirmed the Mendeleev was correct not to
place elements in a strict order of atomic mass but to also take account of their properties. Isotopes
of the same element have different atomic masses but have the same chemical properties so
occupy the same position on the Periodic Table
The Modern Periodic Table

The Periodic Table helps to see patterns in properties

 In order of increasing atomic (proton) no.
o Similar properties
 Metals on the left
 Non-metals on the right
 Elements with similar properties form columns
 Vertical columns – groups
 Group no. – how many electrons in outer shell
 Properties of one element can be predicted by the others in the same group
 Rows – periods (each new period represents another full shell of electrons).

Metals and Non-Metals

Most elements are metals

 Form positive ions when they react
 Towards the bottom and left of the periodic table

The rest are non-metals

 Far right and top of the periodic table
 Non-metals generally form negative ions when they react

The electronic structure of atoms affects how they will react

 Atoms generally react to form a full outer shell
 They do this by losing, gaining or sharing electrons
 Metals to the left don’t have many electrons to remove and metals towards the bottom
which are a long way from the nucleus so feel weaker attraction. Both these effects mean
that not much energy is needed to remove the electrons so its feasible for the elements to
react to form positive ions with a full outer shell
 For non-metals, forming positive ions is much more difficult because they are either t the
right of the periodic table – where they have lots of electrons to remove to get a full outer
shell, or towards the top – where the outer electrons are close to the nucleus so feel a
strong attraction. Much easier to share or gain electrons

Metals and Non-metals have different physical properties

 All metals have metallic bonding which causes them to have similar obasic properties.
o Strong – but can be bent, hammered
o Good conductors of heat and electricity
o High B.P. and M.P.
 As non-metals don’t have metallic bonding they don’t tend to exhibit the same properties as
metals. They tend to be…
o Dull looking
o Brittle
o Aren’t always solids at room temp
o Don’t always conduct heat or electricity
o Lower density
Transition Metals

Transition metals are in the centre of the periodic table

 Typical metals
 Properties that a ‘proper’ metal would have
o good conductors of heat and electricity
o very dense
o strong
o shiny
 can have more than one ion
 Transition metal ions are often coloured and so compounds that contain them ar colourful
 Transition metal compounds often make good catalysts (things that speed up a reaction)
Group 1 Elements

The Group 1 elements are reactive, soft metals

 Alkali metals – lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, caesium, and francium
 Soft and low density – first three are less dense than water
 One electron in their outer shell – makes them…
o Very reactive
o Gives similar properties

Trends of Alkali metals

Going down…
 Increasing reactivity –
o Outer electron is more easily lost as the attraction between the nucleus and
electron decreases, because the electron is further away from the nucleus the
further down the group
 Lower melting and boiling points
 Higher relative atomic mass

Alkali metals form ionic compounds with non-metals

 Form 1+ ions
 Only ever react to form ionic compounds because they are so reactive
o These compounds are usually white solids that dissolve in water to form colouress
solution

Reactions of alkali metals with non-metals

Reaction with water

 When group 1 metals are put into water, the react vigorously to produce hydrogen gas and
metal hydroxide – salts that dissolve in water to produce alkane solutions
 Sodium + Water  Sodium Hydroxide + Hydrogen
 The more reactive (lower down the group) and alkaline metal is, the more violent the
reaction is
 The amount of energy given out by the reaction increases down the group – the reaction
with potassium releases enough energy to ignite hydrogen

Reactions with chlorine

 Group 1 metals react vigorously when heated in chlorine gas to form white metal chloride
salts
 Sodium + chlorine  Sodium Chloride
 As you go down the group, the reactivity increases so the reaction with chlorine gets more
vigorous

Reactions with oxygen

 Form metal oxides depending on the metal
o Lithium reacts to form lithium oxide
o Sodium reacts to form a mixture of sodium oxide and sodium peroxide
o Potassium reacts to form a mixture of potassium peroxide and potassium
superoxide
Group 1 metals have different properties to transition metals
 Group 1 more reactive
 Much less…
o Dense
o Strong
o Hard
o Lower B.P.
Group 7

The halogens are all non-metals with coloured vapours

 Fluorine – very reactive, poisonous yellow gas
 Chlorine – fairly reactive, poisonous dense green gas
 Bromine – dense, poisonous, red-brown volatile liquid
 Iodine – dark grey crystalline solid or a purple vapour
 They all exist as molecules which are pairs of atoms

Trends
Going down…
 Less reactive – harder to gain an extra electron, because the other shell is further from the
nucleus
 Higher M.P and B.P.
 Higher relative atomic masses

 React in similar ways, because they all have seven electrons in their outer shell

Halogens can form molecular compounds

Halogen atoms can share electrons via covalent bonding with other non-metals to achieve a full
outer shell
The compounds that form when halogens react with non-metals all have simple molecular
structures.

Halogens form ionic bonds with metals

 The halogens form 1-ions called halides when they bond with metals
 The compounds that form have ionic structures

More reactive halogens will displace less reactive ones

A displacement reaction can occur between a more reactive halogen and the salt of a less reactive
one.
Exp. Chlorine can displace bromine and iodine from an aqueous solution of its salt (a bromide or
iodide). Bromine will also displace iodine because of the trend in reactivity
Cl2 + 2KI  I2 + 2KCl
Cl2 + 2KBr  Br2 + 2KCl
Group 0 Elements

Group 0 elements are all inert, colourless gases

 Noble gases – helium, neon, argon
 8 electrons – in their outer energy level apart from helium which has two, giving them a full
outer shell.
 As their outer shell is energetically stable, they don’t need to give up or gain electrons to
become stable
 They exist as monoatomic gases – single atoms not bonded together to each other.
 All colourless gas at room temp
 As they are inert, they are non-flammable

There are patterns in the properties of the Noble gases

 B.P. increase down the group
 Increasing relative atomic mass down the group
 Increased B.P. is due to an increase in the no. of electrons in each atom leading the greater
intermolecular forces between them which need to be overcome
Formation of Ions

Ions are made when electrons are transferred

Ions – charged particles
Can be single atoms OR group atoms
Atoms with a full outer shell are stable

 When metals form ions, they lose electrons becoming positive ions
 When non-metals form ions, they gain electrons becoming negative ions

The no. of electrons lost or gained is the same as the charge of the ion
e.g. if two electrons are lost, the charge is 2+

Groups 1 and 2 and 6 and 7 are the most likely to form ions
 G1 and 2 are metals and they lose electrons to form positive ions (cations)
 G6 and 7 are non-metals and they gain electrons to form negative ions (anions)

These oppositely charges ions are strongly attracted to one another by electrostatic forces – called
an ionic bond

Ionic Bonding

Ionic bonding – transfer of electrons

Metal + non-metal react together, the metal atom loses electrons to become a positive ion
Non-metal atom gains the electrons to become negative
These oppositely charged ions are strongly attracted to one another by electrostatic forces. This
attraction is called an ionic bond.

Dot and cross diagrams show how ionic compounds are formed
Exp.
 Sodium chloride (NaCl)
o Sodium loses an electron becoming a Na+ ion.
o Chlorine gains the electron becoming a Cl- ion
 Magnesium chloride (MgCl2)
o Magnesium loses two electrons becoming a Mg2+ ion
o The two chlorine atoms pick up one atom each becoming two Cl- ions
 Magnesium oxide (MgO)
o Magnesium loses two electrons becoming a Mg2+ ion
o Oxygen gains the two electrons becoming a O2- ion
 Sodium oxide (Na2O)
o Sodium atoms lose an electron each becoming two Na+ ions
o Oxygen gains both electrons becoming O2- ions
Covalent Bonding

Covalent bonds – share electrons

 When non-metal atoms bond, they share pairs of electrons to make covalent bonds
 The positively charges nuclei of the bonded atoms are attracted to the shared pair of
electrons by electrostatic forces, making covalent bonds very strong
 Atoms only share electrons in their outer shells (highest energy level)
 Each single covalent bond provides one extra shared electron for each atom
 Each atom involved generally makes enough covalent bonds to fill up its outer shell. Having
a full outer shell makes them very stable
 Covalent bonding happens in compounds of non-metals (e.g. H2O) and in non-metal
elements (Cl2)

There are different ways of drawing covalent bonds

 Dot and cross diagrams
 Electrons drawn in the overlap between the outer orbitals of two atoms are shared between
those atoms
 The displayed formula can show a bond with lines in between
 3D model shows the covalent bonds and their arrangement in space next to each other

Exp.
 Hydrogen (H2)
o Hydrogen atoms have just one electron. They only need one more to complete the
first shell…
o … so they often form single covalent bonds either with other hydrogen atoms or
with other elements
 Chlorine (Cl2)
o Each chlorine atoms needs one more electron to complete the outer shell…
o … so two chlorine atoms can share one pair of electrons and form a single covalent
bond
 Oxygen (O2)
o Each oxygen atom needs two more electrons to complete its outer shell…
o … so in oxygen gas two oxygen atoms share two pairs of electrons with each other
making a double covalent bond
 Nitrogen (N2)
o A nitrogen atom needs three more electrons to complete its outer shell…
o … so two nitrogen atoms share three pairs of electrons to fill their outer shells. This
creates a triple bond
 Hydrogen chloride (HCl)
o …again, both atoms only need one more electron to complete their outer shells
 Methane (CH4)
o Carbon has four outer electrons which is half a full shell…
o It can form four covalent bonds with hydrogen atoms to fill up its outer shell.
 Water (H2O)
o In water molecules the oxygen shares a pair of electrons with two H atoms to for
two single covalent bonds
Properties of simple molecular substances
- Substances containing covalent bonds usually have simple molecular structures
- Held together by very strong covalent bonds
- Contrast, the forces of attraction between these molecules are very weak
- To melt or boil a simple molecular compound, only need to break these feeble
intermolecular forces, NOT covalent bonds
- M.P. and B.P. = very low because the molecules are easily parted from each other
- Most are liquids or gases at room temp
- As molecules get bigger, the strength of the intermolecular forces increases, so more energy
is needed to break them. M.P. and B.P. increases too.
- Don’t conduct electricity – because they are not charged, so there are no free electrons or
ions

Allotropes of Carbon

Allotropes – different structural forms of the same element in the same physical state.

Diamond is very hard

 Giant covalent structures
 Made up of carbon atoms that each form four covalent bonds – this makes it very hard
 Strong covalent bonds – lots of energy needed to break the bonds – gives a very high M.P.
 Doesn’t conduct electricity – because there are no free electrons or ions

Graphite contains sheets of hexagons

 Each carbon atom only forms three covalent bonds, creating sheets of carbon atoms
arranged in hexagons
 No covalent bonds between the layers – only held together weakly, so they are free to
move over each other – makes it soft and slippery – ideal as a lubricating material
 H.P. – lots of energy to break the bonds
 Only three out of each carbon’s four outer electrons are used in bonds – each carbon has
one delocalised electron
 can conduct electricity and thermal energy

Graphene is one layer of graphite

 graphene is a sheet of carbon atoms, joined together in hexagons
 sheet is one atom thick – 2D
 network of covalent bonds is very strong
 incredibly light, can be added to composite materials t improve the strength and not add
too much weight
 delocalised electrons – conducts electricity
o can be used in electronics

Fullerenes form spheres and tubes

 molecules of carbon shaped like closed tubes or hollow balls
 carbon atoms arranged in hexagons, pentagons, heptagons
 can be used o ‘cage’ other molecules – could be used to deliver a drug in the body
 huge surface area
 good lubricants
 can form nanotubes
 nanotubes conduct electricity and thermal energy
 high tensile strength
 can be used in electronics or to strengthen materials without adding much weight e.g. tennis
rackets
Relative Formula Mass

Compounds have s relative formula mass, Mr

Mr is the relative atomic masses of all the atoms in the molecular force added together

Mass of an element in a compound (%)

Ar ×no . of atoms of that element
Percentage mass of an element in a compound = ×100
Mr of the compound
Exp.
 Find the percentage mass of sodium in sodium carbonate, Na2CO3
1. Ar of sodium = 23, Ar of carbon = 12, Ar of oxygen = 16
2. Mr of Na2CO3 = (2x23) + 12 + (3x16) = 106
3. Percentage mass of sodium = 23x2/106x100 = 43%

 A mixture contains 20% iron ions by mass. What mass of iron chloride (FeCl2)
would you need to provide the iron ions in 50g of the mixture? Ar of Fe = 56, Ar of
Cl=35.5
1. Find the mass of iron in the mixture
 The mixture contains 20% iron by mass, so in 50g there will be 50 x
20/100 = 10g of iron
2. Calculate the percentage mass of iron in iron chloride
 56/56+(2x35.5) x 100 = 44.09…%
3. Calculate the mass of iron chloride that contains 10g of iron
 Iron chloride contains 44.09% iron by mass, so there will be 10g of
iron in 10 / 44.09…/100 = 23g
 ANSWER = 23 g
Conservation of Mass

In a chemical reaction, mass is always conserved

 In a chemical reaction, no atoms are destroyed and no atoms are created
 This means there are the same number and types of atoms on each side of a reaction
equation
 because of this, no mass is lost or gained – the mass is conserved during a reaction
 By adding up the relative formula masses of the substances on each side of a balanced
symbol equation, the mass is conserved – the total Mr of all the reactants equals the total
Mr of the products

If the mass seems to change there is usually a gas involved

EXPLANATION 1:
If the mass increases, one of the reactants is a gas that’s found in the air and all the products are
solids or liquids
o Before the reaction, the gas floating around the air. It’s there but it’s not contained in the
rection vessel, so it cannot be accounted for its mass
o When the gas reacts to form part of the product, it becomes contained inside the reaction
vessel – so the total mass of the stuff inside the reaction vessel increases
E.g. when a metal reacts with oxygen in an unsealed container, the mass of the container increases.
The mass of the metal oxide produced equals the total mass of the metal and the oxygen that
reacted from the air
o Metal + oxygen  metal oxide

EXPLANATION 2:
If the mass decreases, one of the products is a gas and all the reactants are solids or liquids
o Before the reaction, all the reactants are contained in the reaction vessel
o If the vessel is not enclosed then the gas can escape from the reaction vessel as it is formed.
It is no longer contained in the reaction vessel, so it cannot account for its mass – the total
mass of the stuff inside the reaction vessel decreases if it isn’t sealed. But in reality the mass
of the metal oxide and the carbon dioxide produced will be equal the mass of the metal
carbonate that decomposed
o Metal carbonate  metal oxide + carbon dioxide
Ionic Compounds

Ionic compounds have a regular lattice structure

Ionic compounds have a structure called a giant ionic lattice

The ions form a closely packed regular lattice arrangement and there are very strong electrostatic
forces of attraction between oppositely charged ions, in all directions in the lattice

A single crystal of sodium chloride, is one giant ionic lattice. The Na+ and Cl- ions are held together
in a regular lattice. The lattice can be represented in different ways…

o The 3D model shows the relative sizes of the ions as well as the regular pattern of an ionic
crystal, but it only shows the outer layer of the compound
o The ball and stick model shows the regular pattern of an ionic crystal and shows how all the
ions are arranged. It also suggests that the crystal extends beyond what is shown in the
diagram. The model isn’t to scale through, so the relative size of the ions may not be shown.
Also, in reality there aren’t any gaps between the ions

Look at charges to find the formula of an ionic compound

 If it is a dot and cross diagram, count up the atoms of each element – this gives the
empirical formula
 If given a 3D diagram of the ionic lattice, use it to work out what ions are in the ionic
compound
 Then balance the charges of the ion so the overall charge of the compound is zero
Metallic Bonding

Metallic bonding involves delocalised electrons

Metals also consist of giant structures
The electrons in the outer shells of the metal atoms are delocalised. These are strong forces of
electrostatic attraction between the positive metal ions and the shared negative electrons
These forces of attraction hold the atoms together in a regular structure and are known as metallic
bonding.
Metallic bonding is very strong
Substances that are held together by metallic bonding include metallic elements and alloys

If the delocalised electrons in the metallic bonds which produce all the properties of metals…

Most metals are solid at room temp

The electrostatic forces between the metal atoms and the delocalised sea of electrons are very
strong, so need lots of energy to be broken – very high M.P. and B.P. and solid at room temp

Metals are goo conductors of electricity and heat

Delocalised electrons carry electrical charge and thermal energy through the whole structure

Most metals are malleable

Layers of metal atoms in a metal can slide over each other – making them malleable

Alloys are harder than pure metals

Pure metals are often soft so are mixed with elements to make them harder.
Most everyday metals are alloys (a mixture of two or more metals or a metal and another element)
Alloys are harder
Different elements have different sized atoms – so the new metal atom will distort the layers of
metal atoms, making it harder for them to slide over each other. This makes alloys harder thnan
pure metals.
States of Matter

Three states of matter – solid, liquid, gas

Which state something is at a certain temperature depends on how strong the forces of attraction
are between the particles of the material. How strong the forces are depends on…
1. Material (structure of the substance and type of bonds holding the particles)
2. Temp
3. Pressure

Solids…
 Strong forces of attraction between particles – holds them close together in fixed positions
 forms a very regular lattice arrangement
 particles don’t move – solids keep a definite shape and volume
 particles vibrate about their positions – the hotter the solid becomes, the more they vibrate
(causing solids to slightly expand)

Liquids…
 weak force of attraction between the particles
 randomly arranged – free to move past each other but stay close to each other.
 particles are constantly moving with random motion
 the hotter the liquid gets, the faster they move (causing liquids to slightly expand)

Gases…
 very weak attraction – free to move and far apart
 travel in straight lines
 don’t keep a definite shape or volume
 move constantly with random motion
 hotter the gas gets, the faster they move
 gases expand when heated, or their pressure increases

Particle theory is a model for explaining the states of matter. In reality, the articles aren’t solid or
inelastic and they are not sphere – they are atoms, ions, or molecules.
The model doesn’t show the forces between the particles, so no way of knowing how strong they
are
Substances can change from one state to anther
Physical changes don’t change the particles – just their arrangement or their energy

1. When a solid is heated, the particles gain more energy

2. Makes the particles vibrate more – weakens the forces that hold the solid together
3. At a certain temp (M.P.) particles have enough energy to break free from their positions
*MELTING* and SOLID  GAS
4. When a liquid is heated, the particles get more energy
5. Energy makes the particles move faster, weakens and breaks the bonds holding the liquid
together
6. At a certain temp (B.P.) particles have enough energy to break their bonds. *BOILING* OR
*EVAPORATING* and LIQUID  GAS
7. As a gas cools, particles don’t have enough energy to overcome the forces of attraction
between them
8. Bonds form between the particles
9. At the B.P. many bonds form between the gas particles. *CONDENSING* and GAS  LIQUID
10. When a liquid cools the particles have less energy so move around less
11. Not enough energy to overcome the attraction between the particles, more bonds form
12. At the M.P. so many bonds have formed they are held together in one place. *FREEZING*
and LIQUID  SOLID
Limiting Reactants

Reactions stop when one reactant is used up

When some magnesium carbonate is placed in a beaker of hydrochloric acid, the reaction is taking
place because the bubbles of gas being produced
After a while, the fizzing slows down and the reaction eventually stops…
1. The reaction stops when all of one reactant is used up. Any other reactant was added in
excess
2. The reactant used up – limiting reactant (because limits the amount of product that is
formed)
3. Amount of product formed in directly proportional to the amount of limiting reactant.
E.g. if the amount of limiting reactant is halved the amount of product formed is also halved
4. This is because if more reactant is added, there will be more reactant particles to take part
in the reaction, which means more product particles
Reactivity Series

The reactivity series – how well a metal reacts

 The reactivity series lists the metals in order of their reactivity towards other substances
 For metals, their reactivity is determined by how easily they lose electrons – forming
positive ions. The higher up the reactivity series a metal is, the more easily it will form
positive ions
 When metals react with water or acid they lose electrons and form positive ions. So the
higher a metal is, the more easily it reacts with water or acid
 Comparing the relative reactivity of different metals with either an acid or water and put
them in order from the most reactive to the least reactive, the order you get is the reactivity
series

The Reactivity Series

Potassium
Sodium
Lithium Very reactive
Calcium
Magnesium
Carbon
Zinc Fairly reactive
Iron
Hydrogen Not very reactive
Copper

Carbon and Hydrogen

Carbon and hydrogen are non-metals, because it gives information to how metals will react with
them…
 Metals that are less reactive than carbon can be extracted from the ores by reduction with
carbon. Metals that are more reactive than carbon cannot be extracted in this way
 Metals that are more reactive than hydrogen, will react with acids. Metals less reactive than
hydrogen will not react with acids

How metals react with acids tells you about their reactivity
Some metals reacts with acids to produce a salt and hydrogen gas

Acid + Metal  Salt + Hydrogen

The speed of reaction is indicated by the rate at which the bubbles of hydrogen are given off
The more reactive the metal, the faster the reaction will go. Very reactive metals like potassium,
sodium, lithium, and calcium react explosively, but less reactive metals such as magnesium, zinc and
iron react less violently. In general, copper won’t react with cold, dilute acids

Exp. Magnesium reacts vigorously with cold dilute acids like HCl, and H2S4 and produces loads of
bubbles
Both zinc and iron react fairly slowly with dilute acids, but more strongly if you heat them up
Metals also react with water
The reactions of metals with water also show the reactivity of metals

Metal + Water  Metal Hydroxide + Hydrogen

The metals potassium, sodium, lithium and calcium will all react with water
Less reactive metals like zinc, iron and copper wont react with water

Separating Metals from Metal Oxides

Metals often have to be separated from their oxides

 Common metals like iron and aluminium, react with oxygen to form oxides – exp of
oxidation
 A reaction that separates a metal from its oxide is called a reduction reaction

FORMATION OF METAL ORE:

e.g. magnesium is oxidised to make magnesium oxide
2Mg + O2  2MgO

FORMATION OF METAL:
e.g. copper oxide is reduced to copper
2CuO + C  2Cu + CO2

Some metals can be extracted by reduction with carbon

 some metals can be extracted from their ores chemically by reduction using carbon
 in this reaction, the ore is reduced as oxygen is removed from it, and carbon gains oxygen
so is oxidised
o e.g. 2Fe2O3 + 3C  4Fe + 3CO2
 the position of the metal in the reactivity series determines whether it can be extracted by
reduction with carbon

- Metals higher than carbon, have to be extracted using electrolysis, which is expensive
- Metals below carbon, can be extracted by reduction using carbon
- This is because carbon can only take the oxygen away from the metals which are less
reactive than carbon itself
Acids and Bases

The pH scale goes from 0-14

 The pH scale is a measure of how acidic or alkaline a solution is
 The lower the pH of a solution, the more acidic it is
 The higher the pH of a solution, the more alkaline it is
 A neutral substance (e.g. pure water) has pH7

Exp.
pH1 – Car battery acid; stomach acid
pH3 – vinegar, lemon juice
pH4 – acid rain
pH5 – normal rain
pH7 – water
pH8/9 – washing up liquid
pH10 – pancreatic juice
pH11 – soap powder
pH12 – bleach
pH13/14 – caustic soda (drain cleaner)

Measuring the pH of a solution

1. Indicator is a dye that changes colour depending whether it’s above or below a certain pH.
Some indicators contain a mixture of dyes that means they gradually change colour over a
broad range of pH – wide range indicators, exp. Universal Indicator
2. A pH probe attached to a pH meter can be used to measure he pH electronically- more
accurate

Acids and Bases neutralise each other

 An acid is a substance that forms an aqueous solution with a pH of less than 7. Acids form
H+ ions in water
 A base is any substance that will react with an acid to form a salt
 An alkali is a base that dissolves in water to form a solution with a pH greater than 7. Alkalis
form OH- ions in water

The reaction between acids and bases is called neutralisation

Acid + Base  Salt + Water

Neutralisation between acids and alkalis can be seen in terms of H+ and OH- ions like this…

H+ + OH-  H2O

When an acid neutralises a base, the products are neutral.

Strong Acids, Weak Acids and their Reactions

Acids produce protons in water

 H+ ion = proton
 Acids ionise in aqueous solution – produce hydrogen ions

Acids can be strong or weak

 Strong acids - E.g. sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid and nitric acids, ionise completely in
water
All the acid particles dissociate to release H+ ions

 Weak Acids – E.g. ethanoic, citric and carbonic acids, do not fully ionise in solution.
Only small proportion of acid particles dissociate to release H+ ions

 The ionisation of a weak acid is a reversible reaction

 The pH of an acid or alkali is a measure of concentration of H+ ions in the solution
 For every decrease of 1 in the pH scale, the concentration of H+ ions increase by a factor of
10. So an acid that has a pH of 4 has 10 times the concentration of H+ ions increases by a
factor of 100
 The general rule for this is…
o Factor H+ ion concentration changes by = 10-x (x is the difference in pH found by
subtracting the starting pH from the final pH)
 The pH of a strong acid is always lower than the pH of a weaker acid if they have the same
concentration

Strong acids VS. concentrated acids

 Acid strength (i.e. strong or weak) tells what proportion of the acid molecules ionise in
water
 the concentration measures how much acid there is in a certain volume of water.
 The larger the amount of acid, there is in a certain volume of liquid, the more concentrated
the acid is
 pH will decrease with increasing acid concentration regardless of whether it is a strong or
weak acid

Metal oxides and metals hydroxides are bases

 some metal oxides and metal hydroxides dissolve in water. These soluble compounds are
alkalis (which react with acids in neutralisation reactions
 even bases that wont dissolve in water will still take part in neutralisation reactions with
acids
 so all metal oxides and metal hydroxides react with acids to form a salt and water

Acid + Metal Oxide  Salt + Water

Acid + Metal Hydroxide  Salt + Water
The combination of metal and acid decides the salt
 Hydrochloric acid + copper oxide  copper chloride + water
 Sulphuric acid + zinc oxide  zinc sulphate + water
 Hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide  sodium chloride + water
 Nitric acid + magnesium oxide  magnesium nitrate + water
 Sulphuric acid + calcium hydroxide  calcium sulphate + water
 Nitric acid + potassium hydroxide  potassium nitrate + water

Acids and metal carbonates produce carbon dioxide

Metal carbonates are also bases. They will react with acids to produce salt, water and carbon
dioxide
Acid + Metal carbonate  Salt + Water + Carbon Dioxide
Exp
 Hydrochloric acid + sodium carbonate  sodium chloride + water + carbon dioxide
 Sulphuric acid + calcium carbonate  calcium sulphate + water + carbon dioxide

Making soluble salts using insoluble bases

1. Pick the right acid, plus an insoluble base such as an insoluble hydroxide, metal oxude or
carbonate
2. Gently warm the dilute acid using a Bunsen burner, then turn it off
3. Add the insoluble base to the acid a bit at a time until no more reacts (the base is in excess)
4. Then filter out the excess solid to get the salt solution
5. To get pure, solid crystals of salt, gently heat the solution using a water bath or an electric
heater to evaporate some of the water (to make it more concentrated) and then stop
heating it and leave the solution to cool. Crystals of the salt should form, which can be
filtered out of the solution and then dried – CRYSTALISATION
Redox Reactions

If electrons are transferred it is a redox reaction

 A loss of electrons is called oxidation
 A gain of electrons is called reduction

Examples of redox reactions

Metals reacting with acids

1. All reactions of metals with acids are redox reactions
2. E.g. the reaction of iron with dilute sulphuric acid is a redox reaction
3. The iron atoms lose electrons to become iron III ions – they are oxidised by the hydrogen
ions
4. The hydrogen ions gain electrons to become hydrogen atoms – they are reduced by the iron
atoms

Fe + 2H+  Fe2+ + H2

Halogen displacement reactions

1. A more reactive halogen can displace a less reactive halogen from a salt solution
2. E.g. chlorine can displace bromine from potassium bromide solution
3. The chloride atoms gain electrons to become chloride ions – they are reduced by the
bromide ions
4. The bromide ions lose electrons to become bromine atoms – they are oxidised by the
chlorine atoms

Cl2 + 2Br-  2Cl- + Br2

Metal displacement reactions are redox reactions

 If a reactive metals into the solution of a dissolved metal compound, the reactive metal will
replace the less reactive metal in the compound
 This type of reaction is a displacement reaction
 RULE – A more reactive metal will displace a less reactive metal from its compound

Exp
Iron + copper sulphate  iron sulphate + copper
 Fe  Fe2+ + 2e- In this reaction the iron loses 2 electrons to become a 2+ ion – its oxidised

In metal displacement reactions its always the metal ion that gains electrons and is reduced. The
metal atom always loses electrons and is oxidised
Ionic equations show just the useful bits of reactions
 Only the particles that react and the products they form are shown
E.g. Mg + Zn2+  Mg2+ + Zn
 Just shows the displacement of zinc ions by magnesium metal
 Starting magnesium metal and zinc chloride solution
o Mg + ZnCl  MgCl + Zn
 Chloride ions don’t change in the reaction – they are spectator ions
o Mg + Zn2+ +2Cl-  Mg2+ + 2Cl- + Zn

 The ionic equation just concentrates on the substances which are oxidised or reduced
Finite and Renewable Resources

Natural resources come from the Earth, Sea, and Air

 Natural resources form with human input. E.g. cotton for clothing or oil for fuel
 Some natural products can be replaced by synthetic products or improved upon by man-
made processes. E.g. rubber is a natural product that can be extracted from the sap of a
tree, however man-made polymers have been made which can replace rubber such as tyres.

Some natural resources will run out

 Renewable resources reform at a similar rate to or faster than we use them
 timber is a renewable resource as trees can be planted following a harvest and only take a
few years to regrow.
 Finite resources are not formed quickly enough to be considered replaceable
 Finite resources – fossil fuels and nuclear fuels such as uranium and plutonium. Minerals and
ions found in ores in the earth are also non-renewable
 After they’ve been extracted, many finite resources undergo man-made processes to
provide fuels and materials necessary for modern life e.g. crude oil goes through fractional
distillation

Extracting finite resources has risks

 Many modern materials are made from raw, finite resources e.g. plastics and building
materials
 For example mining metal ores is good because useful products can be made. It also
provides local people with jobs and brings money to the area. However, mining ores is bad
for the environment as it uses a lot of energy, scars the landscape, produces a lot of waste
and destroys habitats
Waste Water Treatment

Waste water comes from lots of different sources

 Flushing water down the drain it goes to the sewers and towards sewage treatment plants
 Agricultural systems also produce lots of waste water inc nutrient run off from fields and
slurry from animal farms
 Sewage from domestic or agricultural sources has to be treated to remove any organic
matter and harmful microbes before it can be put back into freshwater sources like rivers or
lakes. Otherwise it would make them very polluted and would pose health risks
 Industrial processes also produce lots of waster water that has to be collected and treated
 As well as organic matter, industrial waste can also contain harmful chemicals – so it has to
go additional stages of treatment before it is safe to release into the environment

Sewage treatment happens in several stages

1. Before being treated the sewage is screened – involves removing large bits of material (like
twigs or plastic bags) as well as any grit
2. The its allowed to stand in a settlement tank and undergoes sedimentation – the heavier
suspended slide sink to the bottom to produce sludge while the lighter effluent floats on the
top
3. The effluent in the settlement tank is removed and treated by biological aerobic digestion –
where air is pumped through the water to encourage aerobic bacteria to break down any
organic matter (inc other microbes)
4. The sludge from the bottom of the settlement tank is also removed and transferred into
large tanks – it gets broken down by bacteria in a process called anaerobic digestion
5. Anaerobic digestion breaks down the organic matter in the sludge, releasing methane gas in
the process. The methane gas can be used as an energy source and the remaining digested
waste can be used as a fertiliser
6. For waste water containing toxic substances additional stages of treatment may involve
adding chemicals, UV radiation or using membranes

Sewage treatment requires more processes than treating fresh water but uses less energy than the
desalination of salt water, so could be used as an alternative in areas where there is not much fresh
water.
Hydrocarbons

Hydrocarbons are the simplest organic compounds

Hydrocarbons only contain hydrogen and carbon

Alkanes have all C-C single bonds

 GENERAL FORMULA FOR ALKANES IS… CnH2n+2
 The alkanes are a homologous series – a group of organic compounds that react in a similar
way
 Alkanes are saturated compounds – each carbon atom forms four single covalent bonds
 First four alkanes: methane (CH4), ethane (C2H6), propane (C3H8), butane (C4H10)

Hydrocarbon properties changes as the chain gets longer

 Shorter hydrocarbon chain is, the more runny (less viscous)
 Shorter, more volatile (turns into gas at a lower temp)
 Shorter, lower B.P. at which the hydrocarbon condenses or vaporises
 Shorter, more flammable

Complete combustion occurs when there is plenty of oxygen

 The complete combustion of any hydrocarbon in oxygen releases lots of energy. The only
waste products are carbon dioxide and water

Hydrocarbon + Oxygen  Carbon dioxide + Water

 During combustion both carbon and hydrogen from the hydrocarbon are oxidised.
 Hydrocarbons are used as fuels due to the amount of energy released when they combust
completely
Fractional Distillation

Crude oil is made over a long period of time

1. Crude oil is a fossil fuel
2. Formed of the remains of plankton, plants and animals that died millions of years ago and
were buried in mud
3. With high temp and pressure the remains turned into crude oil, which can be drilled up from
the rocks
4. Fossil fuels like coal, oil, and gas are called non-renewable fuels as they take so long to make
– finite resources

Fractional distillation is used to separate hydrocarbon fractions

1. Oil is heated until it is mostly gas
2. Gases enter a fractioning column and the liquid is drained off
3. In the column there is a temp gradient (hot at the bottom, cooler top)
4. Longer hydrocarbons = higher B.P. – they condense into liquids and drain out of the column
early on when they are near the bottom
5. Shorter hydrocarbons = lower B.P. – they condense later on, near the top of the column

Uses and Cracking of Crude Oil

Crude oil has various uses in everyday life

- Oil provides fuel for most modern transport
- Petrochemical industry uses some of the hydrocarbons from crude oil as a feedstock to
make new compounds for use in things like polymer, solvents, lubricants, and detergents
- All products from crude oil are organic compounds (compounds containing carbon atoms)

Cracking means splitting up long-chain hydrocarbons

 Short chain hydrocarbons are flammable so make good fuels and are in high demand
 As a result of this a lot of the longer alkane molecules produced from fractional distillation
are turned into smaller, more useful ones by cracking
 As well as alkanes, cracking also produces alkenes. Alkenes are used as a starting material
when making other compounds and can be used to make polymer
 Some of the products of cracking are useful as fuels e.g. petrol for cars

There are different methods of cracking

 Cracking is a thermal decomposition reaction – breaking molecules down by heating
1. First step, heat long chain hydrocarbons to vaporise them
2. Vapour then is passed over a hot powdered aluminium catalyst
3. The long chain molecules split apart on the surface of the specks of catalyst – this is
catalytic cracking
4. Can also vaporise them, mix them with steam and heat them to a very high temp – steam
cracking
REQUIRED PRACTICAL – Making Salts

Making soluble salts using insoluble bases

1. Pick the right acid, plus an insoluble base such as an insoluble
hydroxide, metal oxide or carbonate
2. Gently warm the dilute acid using a Bunsen burner, then turn it
off
3. Add the insoluble base to the acid a bit at a time until no more
reacts (the base is in excess)
4. Then filter out the excess solid to get the salt solution
5. To get pure, solid crystals of salt, gently heat the solution using
a water bath or an electric heater to evaporate some of the
water (to make it more concentrated) and then stop heating it
and leave the solution to cool. Crystals of the salt should form,
which can be filtered out of the solution and then dried –
CRYSTALISATION
Potable Water and Water Treatment

Potable water is water you can drink

 Water that has been treated or is naturally safe for humans to drink
 Chemist don’t call it pure – pure water only contains H2O molecules, whereas potable water
contains other dissolved substances
 The important things s that the levels of dissolved salts aren’t too high; that it has a pH
between 6.5 and 8.5 and there aren’t any bacteria or other microbes swimming in it

How potable water is produced depends on the location

 Rain water is a type of fresh water
 Fresh water doesn’t have much dissolved in it
 When it rains, water can either be collected as surface water (in lakes, rivers and reservoirs)
or as groundwater
 Uk, the source depends on location. Surface water tends to dry up first, so in warm areas
most domestic water supply comes from groundwater
 Even though it has low levels of dissolved substances, water from these fresh waters
sources still needs to be treated to make it safe before it can be use

REQUIRED PRACTICAL – Potable Water