MACRONUTRIENTS

CARBOHYDRATES
TOPICS OF DISCUSSION FOR
CARBOHYDRATES AS
MICRONUTTRIENTS:
Composition
Energy Yield
Categories
Food Source
Dietary Recommendations
COMPOSITION:

 Carbohydrates are made up of elements like Carbon,

Hydrogen and oxygen. Derives from the formula
Cn(H2O)n
 Glucose: C6H12O6 or C6(H2O)6
 most are polyhydroxy aldehydes, polyhydroxy
ketones, or compounds that yield them after hydrolysis.
ENERGY YIELD FROM CARBOHYDRATES
Provides 4 Calories/gram
It is the most preferred fuel for the body
It produces ATP at fastest
Carbohydrates are one of the most abundant organic molecules in nature.
Provide a significant fraction of the dietary calories for most organisms
Act as a storage form of energy in the body,
serve as cell membrane components that mediate some forms of
intercellular communication.
Carbohydrates also serve as a structural component of many organisms,
including the cell walls of bacteria, the exoskeleton of many insects, and the
fibrous cellulose of plants.
CATEGORIES OF CARBOHYDRATES
(SIMPLE VERSUS COMPLEX)

Saccharides – simpler members of

the CHO family (Latin: saccharum –
sugar)
 Monosaccharide,
Disaccharide,
Oligosaccharide, and
Polysaccharide
SIMPLE SUGARS
(MONOSACCHARIDES AND DISACCHARIDES)
•C6H12O6
• with one of the carbons being the carbonyl
group of either an aldehyde or a ketone
• have 3 to 9 carbon atoms
• -ose indicates that a molecule is a
carbohydrate
• tri-, tetr-, pent-, so and so forth - indicate
the number of carbon atoms in the chain .
ALDOSES
• monosaccharides containing an aldehyde
group

Ketoses
• monosaccharides containing a ketone group.
STRUCTURE OF MONOSACCHARIDE

Straight chain Ring structure

DISACCHARIDES
These are glycosides formed by the condensation
of 2 simple sugars.

If the glycosidic linkage involves the carbonyl

groups of both sugars (as in sucrose) the resulting
disaccharide is non reducing sugar.

On the other hand, if the glycosidic linkage

involves the carbonyl group of only one of the 2
sugars (as in maltose and lactose) the resulting
disaccharide is reducing.
REDUCING VERSUS NONE REDUCING SUGAR
COMMON SUGARS
Glucose is a blood sugar
Fructose is a fruit sugar
Sucrose is a table sugar
Lactose is a milk sugar
Maltose is a malt sugar
 COMPLEX SUGARS
(POLYSACCHARIDES)
 These are formed by the condensation of n molecules of monosaccharides
with the removal of n-1 molecules of water. Since condensation involves
the carbonyl groups of the sugars, leaving only one free carbonyl group at
the end of a big molecule, polysaccharides are non-reducing.
 They are of 2 types:
 Homopolysaccharides (e.g., Starch, Glycogen, cellulose).
 Heteropolysaccharides (e.g., glycosaminoglycans, glycoproteins)
STARCH
STARCH
 CELLULOSE
 The β glycosidic linkages in cellulose can't be
broken by human digestive enzymes, so humans
are not able to digest cellulose. (That’s not to say
that cellulose isn’t found in our diets, it just
passes through us as undigested, insoluble fiber.)
 However, some herbivores, such as cows, buffalos,
and horses, have specialized microbes that help
them process cellulose. These microbes live in the
digestive tract and break cellulose down into
glucose monomers that can be used by the animal.
 Wood-chewing termites also break down cellulose
with the help of microorganisms that live in their
guts.
CARBOHYDRATE FOOD SOURCES:
Grains, cereals and legumes:
Pasta, bread, rice, oats, kidney beans etc
Fruits and vegetabes
Starchy vegetables:
Corn, Potato, pees, lentils,
while non-starchy varieties include broccoli, tomatoes, cauliflower and
mushrooms.
PLANT CARBOHYDRATES SOURCES

Simple Carbohydrates:
Fruits, table sugar, sweets and sugar sweetened cereals.
Complex Carbohydrates:
Starchy Vegetables, Grains, Legumes, Whole grains, cereals.
ANIMAL CARBOHYDRATE SOURCES

Milk (milk products (yogurt, cheese, lactose.

Honey contains glucose, fructose.
How much Carbohydrates do you need?
45-65% of Calories from carbohydrates we need.
CARBOHYDRATE'S ROLE IN BODY OTHER
THAN ENERGY PRODUCTION
Glycocalyx
The glycocalyx is a carbohydrate-enriched coating that covers the
outside of many eukaryotic cells and prokaryotic cells, particularly
bacteria . 
• These glycocalyx, several nanometers thick, that serves as an information-
rich surface that a cell shows to its surroundings.
• These oligosaccharides are central players in
1. cell-cell recognition and adhesion
2. cell migration during development
3. blood clotting
4. the immune response
5. wound healing and
other cellular processes.
PROTEOGLYCAN
S
One or several oligosaccharides of
varying complexity joined covalently to a
protein.
Found on
 1. outer face of plasma membrane (as
part of glycocalyx)
 2. extracellular matrix
 3. Defence proteins in blood
.
DISEASES ASSOCIATED WITH CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM
INCLUDE

 Diseases associated with carbohydrate metabolism include

 diabetes mellitus,
 galactosemia,
 glycogen storage diseases, and
 lactose intolerance
DIABETES MELLITUS
Diabetes mellitus is a disease that prevents your body from properly using
the energy from the food you eat. Diabetes occurs in one of the following
situations:
The pancreas (an organ behind your stomach) produces little insulin or no
insulin at all. Insulin is a naturally occurring hormone, produced by the beta
cells of the pancreas, which helps the body use sugar for energy.
-Or-
The pancreas makes insulin, but the insulin made doesn't work as it should.
This condition is called insulin resistance.
WHAT CAUSES DIABETES?
 The causes of diabetes are not known. The following risk factors may
increase your chance of getting diabetes:
 Family history of diabetes or a personal history of gestational diabetes.
 Injury to the pancreas (such as infection, tumor, surgery or accident).
 Autoimmune disease.
 Age (risk increases with age).
 Physical stress (such as surgery or illness).
WHAT ARE THE SYMPTOMS OF DIABETES?
The symptoms of diabetes include:
Increased thirst.
Increased hunger (especially after eating).
Dry mouth.
Frequent urination.
Unexplained weight loss (even though you are eating and feel hungry).
Other symptoms include:
Weak, tired feeling.
Blurred vision.
Numbness or tingling in the hands or feet.
Slow-healing sores or cuts.
Dry and itchy skin.
Frequent yeast infections or urinary tract infections.
GALACTOSEMIA:
“Galactosemia, which means “galactose in the blood,” refers to a group
of inherited disorders that impair the body's ability to process and produce
energy from a sugar called galactose.”
When people with galactosemia ingest foods or liquids containing
galactose, undigested sugars build up in the blood.
 Galactose is present in many foods, including all dairy products (milk and
anything made from milk), many baby formulas, and some fruits and
vegetables.
The impaired ability to process galactose can be due to the deficiency of
any of 3 enzymes, caused by mutations in different genes.
GLYCOGEN STORAGE OR BREAKDOWN
DISEASES
A person is born missing an enzyme needed for the process of breaking down glycogen or to store it properly
or it may not work right.”
This can lead to very low blood glucose levels during periods of fasting. The muscles and organs need a certain
level of glucose in the blood to work properly.
symptoms that may occur include:
•Tiredness.
•Very slow growth.
•Obesity (being very overweight).
•Problems with bleeding and blood clotting.
•Kidney problems.
•Low resistance to infections.
•Breathing problems.
•Heart problems.
•Mouth sores.
•Gout
 People with lactose intolerance are unable to
fully digest the sugar (lactose) in milk.
As a result,
they have diarrhea, gas trouble and bloating
LACTOSE after eating or drinking dairy products.
INTOLERANCE Too little of an enzyme produced in your small
intestine (lactase) is usually responsible for
lactose intolerance. You can have low levels of
lactase and still be able to digest milk products.
But if your levels are too low you become lactose
intolerant, leading to symptoms after you eat or
drink dairy.