Oxidation-Reduction Reactions

An oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction is a type of chemical reaction that involves a transfer of

electrons between two species.
An oxidation-reduction reaction is any chemical reaction in which the oxidation number of a molecule,
atom, or ion changes by gaining or losing an electron.
Redox reactions are common and vital to some of the basic functions of life, including photosynthesis,
respiration, combustion, and corrosion or rusting.

The following thought pattern can be helpful:

•An oxidizing agent oxidizes something else.
•Oxidation is loss of electrons (OIL RIG).
•Therefore, an oxidizing agent takes electrons from that other substance.
•Therefore, an oxidizing agent must gain electrons.
​Here is another mental exercise:
•An oxidizing agent oxidizes something else.
•Therefore, the oxidizing agent must be reduced.
•Reduction is gain of electrons (OIL RIG).
•Therefore, an oxidizing agent must gain electrons.
•1 Oxidation is the gain of oxygen Reduction is the loss of oxygen

Because both reduction and oxidation are occurring simultaneously, this is known as a redox reaction.
An oxidizing agent is substance which oxidizes something else. In the above example, the iron(III) oxide is
the oxidizing agent. A reducing agent reduces something else. In the equation, the carbon monoxide is the
reducing agent.
•Oxidizing agents give oxygen to another substance.
•Reducing agents remove oxygen from another substance.
2 Oxidation is the loss of hydrogen Reduction is the gain of hydrogen
For example, ethanol can be oxidized to ethanal

An oxidizing agent is required to remove the hydrogen from the ethanol. A commonly used oxidizing
agent is potassium dichromate solution acidified with dilute sulfuric acid. Ethanal can also be reduced
back to ethanol by adding hydrogen. A possible reducing agent is sodium tetrahydridoborate, NaBH4.
Again, the equation is too complicated to consider at this point.

More precise definitions of oxidizing and reducing agents are

•Oxidizing agents add oxygen to another substance or remove hydrogen from it.
•Reducing agents remove oxygen from another substance or add hydrogen to it.
 3. Oxidation is loss of electrons •Reduction is gain of electrons

The equation below shows an obvious example of oxygen transfer in a simple redox
reaction:

CuO+Mg→Cu+MgO

Copper(II) oxide and magnesium oxide are both ionic compounds. If the above is written
as an ionic equation,

In the above reaction, magnesium reduces the copper(II) ion by transferring electrons to the ion and neutralizing
its charge. Therefore, magnesium is a reducing agent. Another way of putting this is that the copper(II) ion is
removing electrons from the magnesium to create a magnesium ion. The copper(II) ion is acting as an oxidizing
agent.
Carbohydrate Catabolism
Carbohydrates are broken down into simple,
soluble sugars that can be transported across
the intestinal wall into the circulatory system to
be transported throughout the body.
*Carbohydrate digestion begins in the mouth
with the action of salivary amylase on starches.
*ends with monosaccharides being absorbed
across the epithelium of the small intestine.
*Once the absorbed monosaccharides are
transported to the tissues, the process
of cellular respiration begins. 
Aerobic Respiration

In the presence of oxygen,

 pyruvate can enter the Krebs cycle where additional energy is extracted as
electrons are transferred from the pyruvate to the receptors NAD+, GDP, and
FAD, with carbon dioxide being a “waste product” .
 The NADH and FADH2 pass electrons on to the electron transport chain,
which uses the transferred energy to produce ATP.
 As the terminal step in the electron transport chain, oxygen is the terminal
electron acceptor and creates water inside the mitochondria.
Glycolysis
Cells in the body take up
the circulating glucose in
response to insulin and,
through a series of
reactions
called glycolysis,
transfer some of the
energy in glucose to ADP
to form ATP. The last
step in glycolysis
produces the
product pyruvate.
GLYCOLYSIS
 The electron transport chain
 Most of the ATP generated during the aerobic
catabolism of glucose is not generated directly from
these pathways. Rather, it is derived from
“a process that begins with moving electrons through a
series of electron transporters that undergo redox
reactions: the electron transport chain.”
 This causes hydrogen ions to accumulate within the
matrix space.
Therefore,
 a concentration gradient forms in which hydrogen ions
diffuse out of the matrix space by passing through ATP
synthase.
 The current of hydrogen ions powers the catalytic action
of ATP synthase, which phosphorylates ADP, producing
ATP.
Complex I
To start, two electrons are
carried to the first complex
aboard NADH.
The enzyme in complex I is
NADH dehydrogenase 
Complex I can pump four
hydrogen ions across the
membrane from the matrix
into the intermembrane
space, and it is in this way
that the hydrogen ion
gradient is established and
maintained between the
two compartments
separated by the inner
mitochondrial membrane.
Q and Complex II Complex II directly
receives FADH2, which
does not pass-through
complex I.
The compound
connecting the first and
second complexes to
the third
is ubiquinone (Q). Q
receives the electrons
derived from NADH
from complex I and the
electrons derived from
FADH2 from complex
II, including succinate
dehydrogenase.  
Complex III and Complex
IV
Chemiosmosis
Complex III pumps' protons through the membrane and passes its electrons to cytochrome c for
transport to the fourth complex of proteins and enzymes .
The fourth complex is composed of cytochrome proteins c, a, and a3.
 The cytochromes hold an oxygen molecule very tightly between the iron and copper ions until the
oxygen is completely reduced.
 The reduced oxygen then picks up two hydrogen ions from the surrounding medium to make
water (H2O).
The removal of the hydrogen ions from the system contributes to the ion gradient used in the process
of chemiosmosis. 
 This complex protein acts as a tiny generator, turned by the force of the hydrogen ions diffusing
through it, down their electrochemical gradient. The turning of parts of this molecular machine
facilitates the addition of a phosphate to ADP, forming ATP, using the potential energy of the
hydrogen ion gradient.
Anaerobic Respiration

When oxygen is limited or absent, pyruvate enters an anaerobic pathway.

 pyruvate can be converted into lactic acid.
 generating an additional ATP,
this pathway serves to keep the pyruvate concentration low, so glycolysis continues,
and
 it oxidizes NADH into the NAD+ needed by glycolysis. In this reaction, lactic acid
replaces oxygen as the final electron acceptor.
Anaerobic respiration occurs in most cells of the body when oxygen is limited, or
mitochondria are absent or nonfunctional. For example, because erythrocytes (red
blood cells) lack mitochondria, they must produce their ATP from anaerobic
respiration. 
Cori cycle
 The lactic acid produced
diffuses into the plasma
 carried to the liver,
 converted back into
pyruvate or glucose via
the Cori cycle.
Similarly, when a person
exercises, muscles use ATP
faster than oxygen can be
delivered to them. They
depend on glycolysis and
lactic acid production for
rapid ATP production.