MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY - II

OBJECTIVE
To understand the concept and basic
mechanics of metal cutting, working of
standard machine tools such as lathe, shaping
and allied machines, milling, drilling and allied
machines, grinding and allied machines and
broaching
To understand the basic concepts of computer
numerical control (CNC) machine tool and CNC
programming.
 SYLLABUS ( UNIT-1)

THEORY OF METAL CUTTING:

Mechanics of chip formation, single point

cutting tool, forces in machining, Types of
chip, cutting tools – nomenclature,
orthogonal metal cutting, thermal
aspects, cutting tool materials, tool wear,
tool life, surface finish, cutting fluids and
Machinability.
PRODUCTION/
MANUFACTURING

Production or manufacturing can be defined as value

addition processes by which raw materials of low utility and
value due to its inadequate material properties and poor or
irregular size, shape and finish are converted into high utility
and valued products with definite dimensions, forms and
finish imparting some functional ability.
 PRODUCTION / MANUFACTURING
Production Engineering comprises of
1.Production or Manufacturing process
2.Production Management
Manufacturing Processes
This refers to science and technology of manufacturing products effectively,
efficiently, economically and environment-friendly through Proper selection
of input materials, tools, machines and environments, Improvement of the
existing materials and processes and Development of new materials,
systems, processes and techniques .

Production Management :
Planning, coordination and control of the entire manufacturing in most
profitable way with maximum satisfaction to the customers by best
utilization of the available resources like man, machine, materials and
money.
Machining is an essential process of finishing by which
jobs are produced to the desired dimensions and surface
finish by gradually removing the excess material from the
preformed blank in the form of chips with the help of cutting
tool(s) moved past the work surface(s).

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Machine Tool :

A machine tool is a non-portable power operated

and reasonably valued device or system of devices
in which energy is expended to produce jobs of
desired size, shape and surface finish by removing
excess material from the preformed blanks in the
form of chips with the help of cutting tools moved
past the work surface(s).

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 BROAD CLASSIFICATION OF MANUFACTURING
PROCESSES
(a) Shaping or forming
Manufacturing a solid product of definite size and shape from a given
material taken in three possible states:
in solid state – e.g., forging, rolling, extrusion, drawing etc.
in liquid or semi-liquid state – e.g., casting, injection moulding etc.
in powder form – e.g., powder metallurgical process.
(b) Joining process
Welding, brazing, soldering etc.
(c) Removal process
Machining ,Grinding etc.
(d) Regenerative manufacturing
Production of solid products in layer by layer from raw materials in
different form:
liquid – e.g., stereo lithography
powder – e.g., selective sintering
sheet – e.g., LOM (laminated object manufacturing)
wire – e.g., FDM. (Fused Deposition Modelling)
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 MECHANISM OF CHIP FORMATION
The form of machined chips depend mainly upon :
1.Work material
2.Material and geometry of the cutting tool
3.Levels of cutting velocity , feed and depth of cut
4.Machining environment or cutting fluid that
affects temperature and friction at the chip-tool
and work-tool interfaces.

The types of chips produced are,

1.Continuous chip
2. Discontinuous chip / segmental chip
3.Continuous chip with built up edge.
4.Non homogeneous chip
 Mechanism of chip formation in
machining Ductile materials.
Compression

Shear stress
develops

Reaches or exceeds
the shear strength

Yielding or slip takes

Machining of ductile materials generally produces place resulting shear
flat, curved or coiled continuous chips. deformation

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 Continuous
chip is a type of
chip produced
when the
material ahead
of the tool
continuously
deforms without
fracture and
flows off the
tool face in the
form of ribbon.

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Mechanism of chip formation in machining brittle materials
Discontinuous chips are chips produced when machining brittle materials at very low speed and
high feeds.

Wedging action of the

cutting edge

small crack develops

sharp crack-tip stress

concentration

crack quickly
propagates, under
stressing action, and
total separation takes
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Built-up-Edge (BUE) formation
In machining ductile metals like steels with long chip-tool contact
length, lot of stress and temperature develops in the secondary
deformation zone at the chip-tool interface. Under such high stress and
temperature in between two clean surfaces of metals, strong bonding
may locally take place due to adhesion similar to welding.

With the growth of the BUE, the

force, F (shown in Fig. 5.11) also
gradually increases due to
wedging action of the tool tip
along with the BUE formed on it.
Whenever the force, F exceeds
the bonding force of the BUE, the
BUE is broken or sheared off and
taken away by the flowing chip.
Then again BUE starts forming
and growing. This goes on
repeatedly.
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 TYPES OF MACHINE TOOLS
1. General purpose or basic machine tools
2. Single purpose machine tools
3. Limited purpose machine tools
4. Production machine tools
5. Special machine tools
THEORY OF METAL CUTTING

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 BASIC
ELEMENTS OF
MACHINING
BASIC ELEMENTS OF MACHINING

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MECHANISM OF METAL CUTTING

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CLASSIFICATION OF METAL CUTTING PROCESS

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CLASSIFICATION OF CUTTING TOOLS
• Depending on number of cutting edges -
• Single Point and Multipoint Cutting tool.
• SPCT has effective cutting edge and
removes excess material from the workpiece
along the cutting edge.
• Types: Ground, forged, Tipped & Bit type
• In ground type, the cutting edge is formed
by grinding the end of piece of tool.
• In forged type the cutting edge is formed
by rough forging before hardening and
grinding.

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CLASSIFICATION OF CUTTING TOOLS
• In tipped type, cutting tool, the cutting
edge is in the form of small tip made of
high grade material which is welded to a
shank made of low grade material.
• In bit type, a high grade material of a
square, rectangular or some other shape
is held mechanically in a tool holder.
• SPCT are commonly used in lathes,
shapers, planers, boring and slotters.
• SPCT may be left handed or right
handed.
• The cutting edge is on right or left side
when viewing tool from the point.
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SINGLE POINT CUTTING TOOL

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CLASSIFICATION OF CUTTING TOOLS
• MPCT have more than one cutting
edge. Milling cutters, drills,
broaches, grinding wheel , etc
Cutting tools can also be classified as
• Linear motion: Lathe, boring,
broaching, planing, shaping tools
• Rotary motion : Milling, grinding
• Linear and rotary tools: Drills,
honing tool, boring heads etc.,
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TOOL NOMENCLATURE

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TOOL NOMENCLATURE

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 TOOL NOMENCLATURE
• Shank – It is main body of tool. The shank used to grippesd in
tool holder.
• Flank – The surface or surface below the adjacent of the cutting
edge is called flank of the tool.
• Face – It is top surface of the tool along which the chips slides.
• Base – It is actually a bearing surface of the tool when it is held in
tool holder or clamped directly in a tool post.
• Heel – It is the intersection of the flank & base of the tool. It is
curved portion at the bottom of the tool.
• Nose – It is the point where side cutting edge & base cutting edge
intersect.
• Cutting edge – It is the edge on face of the tool which removes
the material from workpiece. The cutting edges are side cutting
edge (major cutting edge) & end cutting edge ( minor cutting
edge)
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 TOOL NOMENCLATURE
• Tool angles-Tool angles have great importance. The tool with proper
angle, reduce breaking of tool, cut metal more efficiently, generate less
heat.
• Noise radius –It provide long life & good surface finish sharp point on
nose is highly stressed, & leaves grooves in the path of cut.Longer nose
radius produce chatter.
• Point or Tool Tip
The point is end of the tool, which is shaped to produce the cutting
edges and face.
• The Side (Primary) Cutting Edge
This is the edge formed by intersection of the tool face and side flank.
It is mainly responsible for shearing of the work material during
cutting.
• The End (Auxiliary) Cutting Edge
This is the edge formed by joining the side-cutting and end-cutting
edges.
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CHIP CONTROL AND CHIP BREAKER

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CLASSIFICATION OF CUTTING TOOLS
• Chip breakers are provided to control
the continuous ribbon-like chips that
are formed at high cutting speeds.
• These chips are dangerous to the
operator which are hard, sharp and
hot. They become entangled around
the revolving job and the cutting
tool.
• Chip breakers are of four types:
Groove type, Step type, Secondary
rake type, Clamp type.
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CLASSIFICATION OF CHIP BREAKER
• GROOVE TYPE: A small groove is
produced by grinding on the tool face.
• STEP TYPE: A step is created by grinding
on tool face, adjacent to the cutting edge.
• SECONDARY RAKE ANGLE: Secondary
rake is provided on the tool with the help
of grinding, together with a small step.
• CLAMP TYPE: It is mostly used in carbide
tool tipped tools. It is a thin and small
plate which is either brazed or held
mechanically on the face of the tool.
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 CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS

• Plain Carbon steel

• Medium Alloy steel
• High Speed steel
• Non ferrous cast alloys (Stellite)
• Cemented carbides
• Ceramics or oxides
• Cermets
• Diamond
• CBN(Cubic Boron Nitride)
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CHARACTERISTICS OF CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS

 The material should be harder than

the workpiece.
 The material should have wear
resistance to prevent wear and tear
of the cutting tool material.
 It should be chemically stable.
 The material should have sufficient
strength and toughness to
withstand shock and vibration.
 The thermal conductivity should be
high for quicker heat dissipation
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GENERAL PROPERTIES OF CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS
 High mechanical strength; compressive and
tensile
 Fracture toughness – high or at least adequate
 High hardness for abrasion resistance
 High hot hardness to resist plastic deformation
and reduce wear rate at elevated temperature
 Chemical stability or inertness against work
material, atmospheric gases and cutting fluids
 Resistance to adhesion and diffusion
 Thermal conductivity – low at the surface to
resist incoming of heat and high at the core to
quickly dissipate the heat entered
 High heat resistance and stiffness
 Manufacturability, availability and low cost.
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 CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS
HIGH CARBON STEEL:
•Plain carbon steel having carbon percentage upto 1.5% not suitable for tools used in
production work.
•Mainly used as hand tools.
•Low cost
HIGH SPEED STEEL:
•It is a special alloy steel which increases strength, toughness, wear resistance, cutting
ability etc.
•Highly heat resistance
•It is used for lathe, shaper and planer tools, drills and milling cutters.
•It can operate at 2 to 3 times higher speeds than high carbon tool steel.
CEMENTED CARBIDES:
•Also called as sintered carbides, which is used for mass production
•The tungsten tools are formed by tungsten, titanium or tantalam with carbon
•Carbide tools possess very high degree of hardness and wear resistance.
•It can operate at speeds 5 to 6 times higher than HSS.
STELLITE:
•It is a non-ferrous alloy consisting of cobalt, tungsten and chromium.
•Stellite has good shock resistance.
•Tools made by stellite can operate at 2 times faster than high speed steel tools.
•It is quite tough and more heat and wear resistance than HSS
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 CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS
CEMENTED OXIDES OR CERAMICS:
• Ceramics are capable of withstanding high temperature
without losing hardness.
• They are more wear resistance than Cemeted Carbide
tools.
• They are not used for rough machining work because
they are more brittle and have low bending resistance.
• Coolant is not required for machining
• These tools are made from sintered aluminium oxide and
various boron-nitride powders.
DIAMOND:
• It is the hardest cutting tool material.
• It offers high wear resistance but low shock resistance
due to brittleness.
• It has low coefficient of friction.
• They are used for high grade super finishing.

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THERMAL ASPECTS OF MACHINING
 The power consumed in
machining is largely converted
into heat.
 This causes the temperature of
the tool, chip and workpiece to
rise.
 This can influence the
properties of the work material
being machined, as well as the
effective life of the cutting
tool.
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 THERMAL
ASPECTS OF
MACHINING

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DISADVANTAGES OF HEAT GENERATION
• Affects the wear of the cutting tool.
• Can induce thermal damage to the machined surface.
• Causes dimensional errors in the machined surface.

HEAT DISSIPATION
• The temperature in metal cutting can be reduced by
• Application of cutting fluids.
• Application of coolants.
• Change in the cutting conditions by reduction of
cutting speed And or feed.
• Selection of proper cutting tool geometry.

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 MACHINABILITY
The term machinability refers to the ease with which a metal can
be machined to an acceptable surface finish.
Materials with good machinability require little power to cut, can
be cut quickly, easily obtain a good finish, and do not wear the
tooling much, Such materials are said to be free machining.
Machinability can be difficult to predict because machining has so
many variables.
Two sets of factors are the condition of work materials and the
physical properties of work materials.
The condition of the work material includes eight factors:
microstructure, grain size, heat treatment, chemical composition,
fabrication, hardness, yield strength, and tensile strength.
Physical properties are those of the individual material groups,
such as the modulus of elasticity, thermal conductivity, thermal
expansion, and work hardening.
Other important factors are operating conditions, cutting tool
material and geometry, and the machining process parameters.
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 MACHINABILITY INDEX
A numerical value that designates the degree of d
ifficulty or ease with which a particular
material can be machined;
It is used for comparing machinability of
different materials .
Machinability index of free cutting steel serves
as a datum,. With reference to which other
machinability indexes are compared.
Machinability index of free cutting steel is taken
as 100.
It has been found that the machinability index
of a given material changes with the type of oper
ation and the tool material.
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 MACHINABILITY INDEX
 Machinability index (M.I)%
= Cutting speed of metal for 20 min. tool life x 100

Cutting speed of standard free cutting steel for 20min. tool life

Considering machinability index for free cutting steel as 100 %, the

relative machinability index for different materials are given as
follows.

Stainless steel = 25%

Low Carbon steel = 55 to 65%
Copper = 70%
Brass = 180%
Aluminium alloys = 300 to 1500%
Magnesium alloys = 500 to 2000%
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 CUTTING FLUID OR COOLANT
Functions of Cutting Fluids:
The prime function of a cutting fluid in a metal cutting
operation is to control the total heat.
 * Cooling action * Lubricating action and
antiwelding
Cool the tool and work surface.
Reduce the friction between chip and tool to increase
the tool life.
Protect the work against rusting.
Improve the surface finish.
To prevent the formation of built-up-edge
To wash away the chips from the cutting zone
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CLASSIFICATION OF CUTTIING FLUID

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PROPERTIES OF CUTTING FLUID
It should have high specific heat, and high
heat conductivity.
It should be odourless
It should be non-corrosive to work and
metal.
It should be non-toxic
It should have low viscosity.
It should be stable.
It should possess good lubricating
properties to reduce frictional forces and
to decrease the power consumption.
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Schematic illustration of APPLICATION OF CUTTING FLUIDS
proper methods of
applying cutting fluids in
various machining
operations:
(a) Turning
(b) Milling
(c) Thread grinding
(a) Drilling.

CUTTING FLUID SELECTION:

Work piece material
Machining operation
Cutting Tool material
Other ancillary factors.

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Terminology in Describing Surface Finish

The quantities are given in μ in.

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 Terminology in Describing Surface Finish
PROFILE: Contour of any section through a surface.
LAY : Direction of the predominate surface pattern.
FLAWS: Surface irregularities or imperfections which occur at infrequent
intervals.
ROUGNESS: Finely spaced irregularities. It is also called primary texture.
SAMPLING LENGTHS : Length of profile necessary for the evaluation of
the irregularities.
WAVINESS : Surface irregularities which are of greater spacing than
roughness.
ROUGHNESS HEIGHT: Rated as the arithmetical average deviation.
ROUGHNESS WIDTH : Distance parallel to the normal surface between
successive peaks.
MEAN LINE OF PROFILE: Line dividing the effective profile such that
within the sampling length.
CENTE LINE OF PROFILE: Line dividing the effectiveness profile such
that the areas embraced by the profile above and below the line are equal.
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 TOOL LIFE
“Interval of time for which tool works satisfactory
between the two successive sharpenings”
When the tool wears , it looses its cutting ability and
must be reground.
It is used to calculate the tool material performance
and machinability of workpiece material.
Tool life can be expressed in following ways:
Time period in minutes between two successive
grinding.
Number of components machined between two
successive grindings.
Volume of metal(material) removed between two
successive grindings.
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 TOOL LIFE
Volume of metal removed per minute
= DtfN, mm3/min
D = Workpiece diameter in mm
t = Depth of cut in mm
f = Feed rate in mm/rev
N =No of revolutions of workpiece per minute
If T is the tool failure time in minute then,
Total volume of metal removed for tool failure
= DtfN T, mm3
Cutting Speed (V) = DN /1000 m/min
Hence total volume of metal removed for tool failure
= Vx1000xtxfxT, mm3
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FACTORS OR VARIABLE AFFECTING
TOOL LIFE OR FAILURE
Cutting speed
Feed and Depth of cut
Tool Geometry
Tool material
Work materials
Nature of cutting
Rigidity of machine tool and work
Cutting fluids
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 FACTORS AFFECTING TOOL LIFE
(a) Cutting speed
Cutting speed is inversely
proportional to tool life
which leads to generation of
parabolic curve.
The Taylor’s equation for tool
life is
V.Tn =C
Where

Cutting speed(V) (m/min)

V = Cutting velocity in m / min.
T = Tool life in minutes.
n = constant based on the tool
material
C = Machining constant
Tool life (T) min
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 FACTORS AFFECTING TOOL LIFE
(b) Feed and Depth of Cut:
They are inversely proportional to tool
life.
The impirical relation between the cutting
speed, tool life, feed rate and depth of
cut is
V = 257/T0.19 x f0.36 x t0.8 m/min
Where V = Cutting speed in m/min
T = Tool life in min
f = Feed rate in m/min
t = Depth of cut in mm
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 FACTORS AFFECTING TOOL LIFE
(c) Tool Geometry:
 Tool angles of a cutting tool affect the tool
performance and tool life.
 If rake angle is increased in positive
direction, then the cutting force and heat
generation are reduced which increases the
tool life.
 If it is too large, then it reduces mechanical
strength of the tool and tool life.
 Hence the rake angle should be between -5
to +10
 Nose radius increases abrasion, helps in
improving the surface finish, tool strength
and hence the tool life.
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 FACTORS AFFECTING TOOL LIFE
(d) Tool Material:
 Tool material which can withstand maximum cutting temp
without losing its mechanical properties and geometry will
ensure maximum tool life.
 Hence higher the mechanical properties, longer the tool
life.
(e) Work Material:
 Higher the hardness, greater will be the tool wear and
shorter tool life.
(f) Nature of cutting:
 Tool life is affected by continuous or intermittent.
 In continuous cutting, tool life is more.
(g) Rigidity of machine tool and work piece:
 Machine tool and workpiece should remain rigid while
machining operation for longer tool life.
(h) Cutting Fluid:
 Cutting fluid reduces heat between tool and work, reduces
friction, improves surface finish, and longer tool life.
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 TOOL WEAR
Tool wear or tool failure may be
classified as
1. Flank wear
2.Fatigue wear
3.Localized wear(rounding of the cutting
edge)
4.Chipping off of the cutting edge.
5.Diffusion wear
6.Adhesive wear(Attrition wear)
7.Abrasive wear
8.Crater wear
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 TOOL WEAR
The life of a cutting tool can be terminated by a number of means, although
they fall broadly into two main categories:
• Œ gradual wearing of certain regions of the face and flank of the cutting
tool, and
•  abrupt tool failure.
Πthe life of a cutting tool is therefore determined by the
• amount of wear that has occurred on the tool profile and which reduces
the efficiency of cutting to anunacceptable level, or eventually causes tool
failure (case ).
When the tool wear reaches an initially accepted amount, there are two
options,
• Œ to resharpen the tool on a tool grinder, or
•  to replace the tool with a new one.
Wear zones
Gradual wear occurs at three principal location on a cutting tool. Accordingly, three main
types of tool 1 Flank wear :It occurs on the relief face of the tool and the side relief angle.
• Œ crater wear
2 Crater wear:It occurs on the rake face of the tool.
•  flank wear
• Ž corner wear 3 Chipping :Breaking away of a small piece from the cutting edge of the tool .
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TOOL WEAR AND WEAR CONTROL
Crater wear: consists of a concave section on the tool face formed by the
action of the chip sliding on the surface. Crater wear affects the
mechanics of the process increasing the actual rake angle of the cutting
tool and consequently, making cutting easier.
Flank wear: occurs on the tool flank as a result of friction between the
machined surface of the workpiece and the tool flank. Flank wear appears
in the form of so-called wear land .
Corner wear: occurs on the tool corner. Can be considered as a part of the
wear land and respectively flank wear since there is no distinguished
boundary between the corner wear and flank wear land. Corner wear
actually shortens the cutting tool thus increasing gradually the dimension
of machined surface .
Wear control
• The rate of tool wear strongly depends on the cutting temperature,
therefore, any measures which could be applied to reduce the cutting
temperature would reduce the tool wear.

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TOOL SIGNATURE/TOOL DESIGNATION/TOOL NOMENCLATURE
It is used to denote a standardised system of specifying the
principal tool angles of a single point cutting tool. Some
commonly used systems are
(a)American system (b) Orthogonal system
American system:
 It is also called as American Standards Association (A.S.A.)
system of tool signature
 It is very convenient in describing the tool angle of a single
point cutting tool.
 It defines the principal angles like side rake, back rake,
nose, etc., without any reference to their locations with
respect to cutting edge.
Orthogonal system:
 This system is also called as Orthogonal Rake System (O.R.S.) or
International system.
 In this system, it is assumed that the cutting tool operates against
the w/p
 Three reference planes are used and hence Orthogonal system or
reference system or it is also called as L-M-N plane system.
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 CHIP THICKNESS RATIO
During cutting operation, thickness of
upward flowing is more than the actual depth
of cut, because the chip flows upward at a
slower rate than the cutting velocity.
Chip flow velocity is affected by shear plane
angle.
Smaller the shear plane angle, lower will be
the chip flow velocity and hence larger will be
the chip thickness.
Let t1 = chip thickness before deformation
t2 = chip thickness after deformation
r = chip thickness ratio = t1/t2
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 METAL CUTTING THEORIES
There are many different theories in metal
cutting field.
Most of these theories are same with slight
variation in assumptions and hence result.
The parameter considered in all these
theories are shear angle, rake angle and angle of
friction.
Some of some popular theories are
(a)Earnst – Merchant Theory
(b) Lee and Shaffer’s Theory

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