Fuel-Air Cycle

Analysis

Chapter 4
 Content
 Introduction
 Assumptions
 Factors considered
 Composition of cylinder Gases
 Variable Specific Heat
 Dissociation
 Number of Moles
 Comparison with Air-Standard Cycle
 Effect of Operating Variables
 Compression ratio
 Fuel-Air ratio
 Exercises
Introduction
 Air-Standard Cycle Analysis gives an estimate engine
performance which is much greater than the actual
performance, For Example

Air-Standard Actual Cycle

Cycle Engine
Compression 7:1 7:1
ratio
Thermal 54 % 30%
Efficiency
 Introduction
 The reason for such large deviation may be
 Non instantaneous burning (progressive burning)
 Valve operation
 Incomplete combustion
 The main reasons are
 Over simplification in using the values of the properties of the
working fluid
 In Air-Standard Cycle the working fluid
 Is Only Air (perfect Gas) fluid and
 has Constant specific heat at various temperature
Introduction
 In Actual engine the working fluid is
 A mixture of air, fuel and residual gasses,
 the specific heat is not constant
 The product of combustion subjected to dissociation
at height temperature
 The analysis based on the actual properties of the working
medium (cylinder gases) is called Fuel-Air Cycle
Introduction
 Ideal Gas Cycle (Air Standard Cycle)
 Idealized processes
 Idealize working Fluid

 Fuel-Air Cycle
 Idealized Processes
 Accurate Working Fluid Model

 Actual Engine Cycle

 Accurate Models of Processes
 Accurate Working Fluid Model
 The purpose of Fuel-Air Cycle
 By Air standard cycle analysis, it is understood how the
efficiency is improved by increasing the compression ratio.
 However the analysis can not bring out the effect of Fuel-Air
ratio on the thermal efficiency
 In general, fuel-air cycle analysis is used to study
 The effect of fuel-air ratio on engine thermal efficiency
 How the peak pressure and temperature during the cycle varying and
its influence on many engine operating variables.
Considerations of Fuel-Air cycle
 The Fuel-Air cycle analysis takes in to account the
following
 The actual composition of the cylinder gases
 (Fuel +Air + Water vapor + residual gas)
 The fuel-air ratio changes during the operation the engine
 The variation of specific heat with temperature
 The specific heat increase with temperature except for
monatomic gases
 The value of γ changes with temperature
 Considerations of Fuel-Air cycle
 The effect of dissociation
 At high temperature (above 1600 K)
 the fuel-air mixture do not completely combined
 CO, H2, H and O2 will be formed
 The variations of number of molecules
 The number of molecules in the cylinder varies as the pressure
and temperature change
 The number of molecule presented after combustion depend
upon
 Fuel-Air ratio
 Pressure and temperature (PV=nRT)
 Assumptions of Fuel-Air Cycle
 The following assumptions are commonly made for fuel-
air cycle analysis
 There are no chemical change in either fuel or air
prior to combustion
 Subsequent to combustion, the change is always in
chemical equilibrium.
 There is no heat exchange between the gases and
the cylinder walls in any process, i.e. the processes
are adiabatic. compression & expansion processes
are frictionless
Assumptions of Fuel-Air Cycle
 The following assumptions are commonly made for fuel-
air cycle analysis
 In case of reciprocating engines it is assumed that fluid
motion can be ignore inside the cylinder
 The fuel is completely vaporized and perfectly mixed with
the air,
 The burning takes place instantaneously at top dead
centre (at constant volume)
Composition of Cylinder Gases
 The fuel air ratio changes during the engine operation
 This change in air-fuel ratio affects the composition of
gases before and after combustion particularity the
percentage of CO2, CO, H2O etc.. In the exhaust gas
 The amount of exhaust gases in the clearance volume
space various with speed and load on the engine.
Therefore the fresh charge composition varies its
composition because when it enters in the cylinder
comes in contact with the burnt gases i.e
 Composition of Cylinder Gases
 The composition of the working fluid, which changes during the engine
operating cycle, is indicated in the following table

Process SI Engine CI Engine

Air, Fuel, Recycled exhaust & Air, Recycled exhaust &
Intake
Residual gas Residual gas
Air, Fuel Vapor, Recycled Air, Recycled exhaust &
Compression
exhaust & Residual gas Residual gas
Composition products ( CO2,
Composition products ( CO2,
Expansion CO, H2, O2, NO, N2, OH,
CO, H2, O2, NO, OH, O, H,…)
H2O, O, H,…)
Composition products (mainly
N2, CO2, H2O) Composition products
Exhaust
(mainly N2, CO2, H2O & O2)
Composition of Cylinder Gases
 The effect of cylinder composition on the performance
of the engine can easily computed by means of suitable
numerical techniques.
 The computer analysis can produce fast and accurate
results. Thus, fuel-air analysis can be done more easily
through computer rather than manual calculations.
Chart for Unburned Mixture
 The chart for unburned mixture is used for calculation of
pressure, temperature, and energy of the cylinder contents
before burning take place.
 The basis of the chart is as follows
 Let F = Fuel-Air Ratio
 Mass of residual gas in the chart 
f   
 Total mass of chart contentsor " chart quality" 

 Total mass of chart content = (1+F) kg i.e. the material in

the chart originally came from 1 kg of air and F kg of fuel
Chart for Unburned Mixture
 Mass of residual gas in chart=f(1+F) kg

Fresh air = (1-f)

Fresh Charge = (1-f) (1+F)

Total Charge = (1+F)

Residuals = f(1+F)

Fresh Fuel (1-f)F

 Fresh Charge = (Mass of fresh air) +(Unburned fuel in chart)
 = (Total Charge)- (Residual gas mass)
Chart for Unburned Mixture
 Fresh Charge = (Mass of fresh air) +(Unburned fuel in chart)
 = (Total Charge)- (Residual gas mass)
 = (1+F) – f(1+F)
 = (1-f) (1+F)
 For every (1+F) kg of fresh charge, 1 kg of fresh air

 1 
 Mass of fresh air in chart  1  f 1  F   
1 F 
 1  f  kg

 F 
Mass of fresh Fuel in Chart
 1  f 1  F   
1 F 


 1  f  F kg
 Example
 If f=0.06 and F=0.0782

 Total Mass in chart = (1+F)=(1+0.0782) kg=1.0782 kg

 Mass of residuals =f(1+F) =0.06 (1.0782)=0.0647kg

 Mass of fresh charge=(1-f)(1+F)= (1-0.06)(1+0.0782)

= 0.94 *1.0782 =1.0135 kg

Example
 Total mass of residuals and fresh charge

= 0.0647+1.0135=1.0782 kg

 Mass of fresh air = (1-f) = (1-0.06)=0.94 kg

 Mass of fresh fuel= (1-f)F=(0.94 *0.0782)=0.0735 kg

 Mass of fresh charge

=(mass of fresh air) + (mass of fresh fuel)

 = (0.94)+(0.0735)=1.0135 kg
 For further detail read:
 John B. Heywood, chapter 4&5 (page 100- 204)
 Variable Specific Heats
 All gases except mono-atomic gases, show an increase in
specific heat with temperature.
 The increase in specific heat does not follow any particular
law.
 However between the temperature range 300 K – 2000 K the
specific heat curve is nearly a straight line which may be
approximately expressed in form
CP  a1  K1T
CV  b1  K1T
 Where a1, b1, and k1 are constants
 The gas constant R= Cp-Cv = a1-b1
 Variable Specific Heats
 Above 1500 K the specific heat increases much more rapidly
and may be expressed in the form
CP  a1  K1T  K 2T 2
CV  b1  K1T  K 2T 2
 Physical expression for increasing S.P when temp
increases
 Large fractions of the heat would be required to produce motion
of the atoms within the molecules. Since temperature is the
result of motion of the molecules, as a whole, the energy which
goes in to moving the atoms does not contribute to proportional
temperature rise. Hence more heat is required to raise the
temperature of unit mass through one degree at higher level.
This heat by definition is the specific heat
Variable Specific Heats
 Since the deference between Cp & Cv is constant,
the value of γ decreases with increase in
temperature.
 Thus, if the variation of specific heats is taken in to
account during the compression stroke, the final
temperature and pressure would be lower than if
constant values of specific heat are used.
 Variable Specific Heats

q  Wothers  dU
dU  Cv dT h  Wb  u
 U   h 
CV    Cp   
 T V  T  p
h   xi hi
Tds  du  pdv
Tds  Cv dT  pdv
Tds  dh  vdp
Tds  C p dT  vdp
Loss Due to Variable Specific Heats
 The magnitude of drop of temperature at the end of
compression is proportional to the drop in values of
ratio of specific heats.
 For process 1-2
 With constant S.H
 1
 v1 
T2  T1 
v 

 2 
 With variable S.H
 k 1
 v1 
T2 '  T1 
v 

 2  Cp  v1   v1 
Where k , v2'  v1' ,       r
Cv  v2   v2 ' 
Loss Due to Variable Specific Heats
 Process 2-3
 Constant volume combustion (Heat addition), from point 2’ will
give a temperature T3’ with the variation in specific heat, instead
of T3. This is due to the rise in the value Cv BeCoz of variable
specific heat, which reduces the temperature
 Process 3-4
 If the expansion takes place at constant S.H the pro is (3’ 4’’)
 If the expansion takes place with variable S.H the pro is (3’ 4’)
 4’ is higher than 4’’
 The magnitude in the difference b/n 4’ & 4’’ is proportional to the
reduction in the value of γ
Loss Due to Variable Specific Heats
 For process 3’-4’’ (Con S.H)
 1
 v3 
T4 ''  T3'  
 v 4 '' 
 For the process 3’-4’
k 1
 v3 
T4 '  T3'  
 v4 ' 
 Reduction in the value of k due to variable specific heat
results in increase of temperature from T4’’ to T4’.
Dissociation
 Dissociation is the disintegration of combustion
products at height temperature.
 Dissociation is the reverse process to combustion
 Dissociation is the heat absorption (endothermic
process)
 Combustion is heat liberation (Exothermic process)
 In IC engine, mainly dissociation of CO2 and little
dissociation of H20
 Dissociation
 The dissociation of CO2 in to CO and O2 starts commencing
around 1000 0C
CO2  2CO  O2  Heat
 The dissociation of H2O occurs at temperature above 1300 0C

 The presence H
of2O
CO and
2 H 2 O2 Oin2 the
Heat
gases tends to prevent
dissociation of CO2; this is noticeable in a rich fuel mixture which by
producing more CO, suppresses dissociation of CO2
Dissociation
 There is no dissociation in the burnt gases of a lean
fuel-air mixture. This mainly due to the fact that the
temperature produced is too low for this phenomenon
to occur.
 The maximum dissociation occurs in the burnt gases of
the chemically correct fuel-air mixture when the
temperature are expected to be high but decreases
with the leaner and richer mixtures.
 The Effect of Dissociation
 On Exhaust Gas Temperature
 Fig shows the reduction in the temperature of the exhaust
gas mixtures due to dissociation w.r.t air-fuel ratio

with no dissociation
maximum temperature is attained @
chemically correct A-F ratio

With dissociation
maximum temp is obtained when
mixture is slightly rich
 The Effect of Dissociation
 On Power output
 If there is no dissociation
 The Brake power output is max @ stoichiometric mix

 If there is dissociation
 The Brake Power

is Max @ slightly
Rich Mixture
 The shaded area shows
the loss of power due to
dissociation
The Effect of Dissociation
 Dissociation effect are not pronounced in CI engine
as in an SI engine. This is mainly due to
 The presence of a heterogeneous mixture and
 Excess air to ensure complete combustion
 Both these factors tend to reduce the peak gas
temperature attained in CI engine
 The Effect of Dissociation
 On the p-v diagram of Otto Cycle
 BeCoz of lower maximum temperature due to dissociation. the maximum
pressure is also reduced and state after combustion will be replaced by 3’
instead of 3.
 If there was no re-association due to fall of temp during Exp proc.
 Would be represented by 3’ 4’’
 If there is re-association
 the Expansion follows the path
3’ 4’
 During the recombination the heat is given
back it is too late to contribute a convincing
positive increase in the out put of the engine
so that the heat is carried away by the
exhaust gas
Effect of Number of Moles
 The number of molecules percent in the cylinder after
combustion depends up on the fuel-air ratio, type and
extend of reaction in the cylinder
 According to the gas low pV  N RT
 The pressure depends on the number of molecules or
moles present. This has direct effect on the amount of
work the cylinder gases can impart on the piston
ln Pr   xi ln Pri
Effect of Number of Moles
Tds  dh  vdp
 vdp   C p dT 
Tds  C p dT  vdp 
 pv   RT  
   
0  C p dT  vdp dp  C p  dT
 p    R  T
T
1  dT 
R T0
ln Pr  C p 
 T 

Pr can be tabulated in terms of temperature from state 1 & 2 along isentropic path

 P1 
Pr1  Po  P1
 
P
Pr2  2  P2
 Po 
Comparison of Air-Standard & Fuel-Air cycles

 The magnitude of difference between the two cycles

can be attributed to the following factors:
 Character of the cycle (due to assumptions)
 Equivalence ratio
 Chemical composition of the fuel
Comparison of Air-Standard & Fuel-Air cycles

 Fig shows the variation of efficiency with mixture strength of

fuel-air cycle relative to that of air-cycle showing the gain in
efficiency as the mixture becomes leaner.
 The trend exists at all compression ratios
 Cycles with lean to very lean
mixtures tend towards air-standard
cycles. In such cycles the temperature
and Pressure rises.
Comparison of Air-Standard & Fuel-Air cycles

 The Air-Standard cycle can’t predict the variation of thermal

efficiency with mixture strength since air is assumed to be
the working medium
 Fuel-Air cycle analysis suggest that the thermal efficiency
will deteriorate as the mixture supplied to the engine is
enriched. BeCoz
 By increasing losses due to variable specific heats and
dissociation as the mixture strength approaches to chemically
correct values
 Enrichment beyond the chemically correct ratio will lead to
incomplete combustion and loss in thermally efficiency
Comparison of Air-Standard & Fuel-Air cycles

 Therefore, it will appear that thermal efficiency will increase as

the mixture is made leaner. However, beyond a certain
leaning, the combustion become erratic with loss of efficiency.
 Thus the maximum efficiency is within the lean zone very near
the stoichiometric ratio. This gives rise the combustion loop
 Fig shows the effect of mixture
strength on S.F.C @
 Constant speed
 Constant throttle setting
Effect of Operating variables
 The effect of the common engine operating
variables on the thermal efficiency, pressure and
temperature within the engine cylinder is better
understood by fuel-air cycle analysis
 Operating variables
 Compression ratio
 Equivalence ratio
 Effect of Compression Ratio
 The fuel-air cycle efficiency
increases with the
compression ratio in the
same manner as the air-
standard cycle efficiency,
principally for the same
reason.
 Effect of Compression Ratio
 The variation of indicated
thermal efficiency with
respect to equivalence ratio
for various compression
ratios.

The Actual Fuel  Air Ratio

Equvalent Ratio   
Chemically Correct Fuel  Air Ratio
Effect of Compression Ratio
 The variation of indicated thermal efficiency with respect to
equivalence ratio for various compression ratios.
 Effect of Compression Ratio
 The maximum pressure and maximum temperature
increase with the compression ratio since the
temperature, T2, and pressure, P2, at the end of
compression are higher
However, it can be noted from
the experimental result (fig)
that the ratio of fuel-air cycle
efficiency to air-standared
cycle efficiency is independent
of the compression ratio
(roughly constant) for the
given fuel-air ratio
Effect of Fuel-Air Ratio
 Efficiency
 As the mixture is made lean the temperature rise due to
combustion will be lowered as a result of reduced energy
input per unit mass of mixture.
 This will result in lower specific heat.
 further, it will lower the losses due to dissociation and
variation in specific heat.
 The efficiency therefore, higher and, in fact, approaches the
air-cycle efficiency as the fuel-air ratio is reduced as shown in
Figure
Effect of Fuel-Air Ratio
 Efficiency
 Effect of equivalence ratio (mixture strength) on
thermal efficiency.
 Effect of Fuel-Air Ratio
 Maximum Power
 Fuel-air ratio affects the maximum power of the engine

The variation is as shown in Figure,

As the mixture becomes richer,
after a certain point both efficiency
and power output falls as can be
seen from the experimental curve
This is because in addition heats and chemical
equilibrium losses there is insufficient air which
will result in formation of CO and H2 during
combustion, which represents direct wastage of
 Effect of Fuel-Air Ratio
 Maximum Temperature
 At a given compression ratio the
temperature after combustion reaches a
maximum when the mixture is slightly rich,
i.e., around 6% or so (FIA = 0.072 or AlF =
14 : 1)
 At chemically correct ratio there is still
some oxygen percent at pt 3 (After
combustion) BeCoz of chemical
equilibrium effect a rich mixture will cause
more fuel to combine with oxygen at the
point thereby raising the temperature T3.
 However, at richer mixtures increased
formation of CO counters this effect.
 Effect of Fuel-Air Ratio
 Maximum Pressure
 pressure of a gas in a given space
depends upon its temperature and
the number of molecules
 The curve of P3, therefore follows
T3, but because of the increasing
number of molecules,P3 does not
start to decrease until the mixture is
some what richer than that the
maximum T3 (at FIA = 0.083 or AI F
12 : 1), i.e. about 20 per cent rich
 Effect of Fuel-Air Ratio
 Exhaust Temperature
 The exhaust gas temperature T4 is maximum at the chemically correct
mixture as shown in figure.
 At this point the fuel and oxygen are completely used up, as the effect
of chemical equilibrium is not significant.
 At lean mixture, because of less fuel, T3 is less and hence T4 is less
 At rich mixtures less sensible energy is developed and hence T4 is
less
 T4 varies with fuel-air ratio in the same manner as T3 except that
maximum T4 is at the chemically correct fuel-air ratio in place of
slightly rich fuel-air ratio (6 %) as in case of T3
 Effect of Fuel-Air Ratio
 Exhaust gas temperature
 However the behavior of T4 is with
compression ratio is different from that of
T3 .
 Unlike T3, the exhaust gas temperature
T4 is lower at high compression ratios,
BeCoz the increased expansion causes
the gas to do more work and less heat to
be rejected at the end of the stroke.
 The same effect is percent in the case of
air-cycle analysis also
 Effect of Fuel-Air Ratio
 Mean Effective Pressure (MEP)
 The MEP increases with
compression ratio
 It follows the trend of P3 and P4
and hence it is maximum at a
fuel-air ratio slightly richer than
the chemically correct ratio as
shown in Figure
Effect of Fuel-Air Ratio
 Table shows a summary of conditions which give maximum
Pressure and Temperature in a constant-volume cycle
assuming fuel-air cycle approximations.
Exercise
 What is the effect on efficiency of an Otto cycle having a
compression ratio of 8, if Cv increased by 1.6 %
 Solution
 1  Cp
otto  1    1  R  C p  Cv 
r  Cv

 Cp   C p  Cv  R
   1     1    
 Cv   Cv  Cv
Solution
 Differentiating both sides
 1   R   1    R ln r 
  d   2  ln r (dCv )
1    Cv  d   2
dCv
 Cv 
 d   1      1 ln r  dCv 
     
     Cv 
 1 0.4
1 1
 1   1    0.565  56.5 %
r 8

d  1  0.5651.4  1 ln 8  1.6 
   
  0.565  100 
 1.025 %
Actual Cycle
Lecture-5
Introduction
 Ideal Gas Cycle (Air Standard Cycle)
 Idealized processes
 Idealize working Fluid
 Fuel-Air Cycle
 Idealized Processes
 Accurate Working Fluid Model

 Actual Engine Cycle

 Accurate Models of Processes
 Accurate Working Fluid Model
 Introduction
 The actual cycles for IC engines differ from the fuel-air cycles and air-
standard cycles in many respects.
 The actual cycle efficiency is much lower than the air-standard efficiency
due to various losses occurring in the actual engine operation.
 The major losses are due to:
 Variation of specific heats with temperature
 Dissociation of the combustion products
 Progressive combustion
 Incomplete combustion of fuel
 Heat transfer into the walls of the combustion chamber
 Blowdown at the end of the exhaust process
 Gas exchange process
 Introduction
Theoretical Cycle

Corrected for the

I II
Air Cycle Characteristics of the Fuel-Air
Composition of Cy. Gases
Fuel-Air Cycle
Variable sp.heat, Dissociation etc..

IV
Useful work

Which modified to account

Actual work loses For Combustion loss,
III Time loss, Heat loss
Less the friction losses
Actual Cycle Blowdown loss, etc…
gives
Comparison Of Air-standard
And Actual Cycles
 The actual cycles for internal combustion engines differ
from air- standard cycles in many respects
i The working substance being a mixture of air and fuel vapor
or finely atomized liquid fuel in air combined with the
products of combustion left from the previous cycle.
ii The change in chemical composition of the working
substance.
iii the variation of specific heats with temperature.
iv The change in the pressure, temperature and actual
amount of fresh charge because of the residual gases
Comparison Of Fuel-Air Cycle
And Actual Cycles
v The progressive combustion rather than the instantaneous
combustion.
vi The heat transfer to and from the working medium
vii The substantial exhaust blowdown loss, i.e., loss of work
on the expansion stroke due to early opening of the
exhaust valve.
viii Gas leakage, fluid fiction etc., in actual engines.
 Points (i) to (iv), are similar to fuel-air cycles
 Points (v) to (viii) are the difference between fuel-air cycles
and actual cycles.
The Major Loss of Actual Cycle
 Time loss factor
 i.e. loss due to time required for mixing of fuel and
air and also for combustion.
 Heat loss factor
 i.e. loss of heat from gases to cylinder walls.
 Exhaust blowdown factor
 i.e. loss of work on the expansion stroke due to
early opening of the exhaust valve.
Time Loss Factor
 In air-standard cycles the heat addition is an instantaneous
process whereas in an actual cycle it is over a definite
period of time.
 The time require for the combustion is such that under all
circumstance some change in volume takes place while it is
in progress
 The crankshaft will usually turn about 30 to 400 b/n the
initiation of the spark and the end of combustion. There will
be a time loss during this period and is called time loss due
to progressive combustion or merely time Losses
 Time Loss Factor
 The consequence of the finite
time of combustion is that the
peak pressure will not occur
when the volume is minimum i.e.
when the piston is at TDC; but
will occur some time after TDC
 The pressure, therefore, rises in the
first part of the working stroke from b
to c as shown in Fig.
This loss of work reduces the efficiency and is called time loss
due to progressive combustion or merely time losses.
Time Loss Factor
 the time taken for burning depends upon
 the flame velocity which in turn depend up on
 the type of fuel and the fuel-air ratio
 the shape and size of the combustion chamber.
 The distance from the point of ignition to the opposite
side of the combustion space
 In order that the peak pressure is not reached too late in the
expansion stroke, the time at which the combustion starts is
varied by varying the spark timing or spark advance.
 Time Loss Factor
 Figure shows the effect of spark timing on p-v diagram from a
typical trial. With spark at TDC
 The peak pressure is low due to the expansion of gases. If the
spark is advanced to achieve complete combustion close to
TDC additional work is required to compress the burning
gasses

0o degree
35o degree
Spark advance
Spark advance
 Time Loss Factor
 With or without spark advance
the work area is less and the
power output and efficiency are
lowered.
 Therefore a moderate or
optimum spark advance is the
best compromise resulting in
minimum losses on both the
compression and expansion
strokes
Time Loss Factor
 Table shows the engine performance for various ignition
timings.
 The effect of spark advance on the power output by means of
the p-V diagram
 Time Loss Factor
 The effect of spark advance on imep and power loss

Some times a deliberate spark

retarded from optimum may be
necessary in order to avoid
• knocking and
• to simultaneously reduce
exhaust
emission of hydrocarbons and

carbon monoxide
 Time Loss Factor

 At full throttle with the fuel-air ratio corresponding to maximum

power and the optimum ignition advance, the time losses may
account for a drop in efficiency of about
 5 percent for actual Engine
 2 percent fuel-air cycle efficiency: is reduced by about
 These losses are higher when the
 mixture is richer or leaner
 Ignition advance is not optimum and
 at part throttle operations the losses are higher.
Time Loss Factor
 It is impossible to obtain a perfect homogeneous mixture with
fuel-vapor and air, since, residual gases from the previous are
present in the clearance volume of the cylinder. further, very
limited time is available between the mixture preparation and
ignition
 Under these circumstances, it is possible that a pocket excess
oxygen is present in one part of the cylinder and a of excess
fuel in another part.
 Therefore, some fuel does not or burns partially to CO and the
unused O2 appears in the exhaust
 Time Loss Factor
 Composition exhaust
gases for various fuel-air
ratio

...
 Time Loss Factor
 Only about 95 % of the energy is released with stoichiometric
fuel-air ratios.
 Energy released in actual engine is about 90% of fuel energy
input.
 It should be noted that it is necessary to use a lean mixture to
eliminate wastage of fuel,
 while a rich mixture is required to utilize all the oxygen.
 Slightly leaner mixture would give maximum efficiency but too
lean a mixture will burn slowly increasing the time losses or will
not burn at all causing total wastage of fuel
 In a rich mixture a part of the fuel will not get the necessary
oxygen and will be completely lost.
Time Loss Factor
 the flame speed in mixtures more than 10% richer is low,
thereby, increasing the time losses and lowering the
efficiency. Even if this unused fuel and oxygen eventually
combine during the exhaust stroke and burn, the energy
which is released at such a late stage can not be utilized.
 Imperfect mixing of fuel and air may give different fuel-air
ratios during suction stroke or certain cylinders in a multi
cylinder engine may get continuously leaner mixtures than
others.
 Heat Loss factor
 During combustion the heat
flows in the cylinder gases
through
 Cooling water
 Lubricating oil
 Conduction and convection
and radiation
 Heat loss during combustion will
have the maximum effect on the
cycle efficiency
 The heat lost during combustion
does not represent a complete
loss.
 Heat Loss factor
 The effect of heat loss during combustion is
reduce the maximum temperature and therefore
the specific heats are lower.
 Out of various losses heat losses contribute
around 12 %

 For further details, read

 John B. Heywood, chapter 12 (page 668- 711)
 Exhaust Gas Blowdown
The actual exhaust process consists of two phases:
i) Blowdown PT i i
Pe

ii) Displacement
Products

State 6 (TC) State 5 (BC)

Blowdown Displacement

Blowdown – At the end of the power stroke when the exhaust valve opens
the cylinder pressure is much higher than the exhaust manifold pressure
which is typically at 1 atm (P4 > Pe), so the cylinder gas flows out through the
exhaust valve and the pressure drops to Pe.

Displacement – Remaining gas is pushed out of the cylinder by the piston

moving to TC.
 Exhaust Gas Blowdown
 The cylinder pressure at the end of expansion stroke is
about 7 bar depending on the compression ratio employed.
 If the exhaust valve is opend at BDC, the piston has to do
work against high cylinder pressers during the early part of
the exhaust stroke
 If the exhaust valve is opened too early, a part of the
expansion stroke is lost
 The best compromise is to open the exhaust valve 400 to 700
before BDC thereby reducing the cylinder pressure to
halfway (say 3.5 bar) before the exhaust stroke begins
 Exhaust Gas Blowdown
P5  Pe
k 1 k 1
P  k
P  k
T5  T4  5   T4  e 
 P4   P4 
m6 m6  V6 v6  1  v4 
f        
m1 m4  V4 v4  r  v6 
1  T P  1  T  P 
  4 6    4  6 
r  T6 P4  r  T5  P4 
The residual gas temperature T6 is equal to T5
k 1 k 1
T5  P5  k
P  k
since      6 
T4  P4   P4  Blowdown
Displacement
1 1
1  P5  k
1 Pe  k
f      
  
r  P4  r  P4  TC BC
Exhaust Gas Blowdown
 Loss Due to Gas Exchange process (pumping
loss)
 The difference of work done to expelling the exhaust
gas and the work done by the fresh charge during
the suction stroke is called the pumping Work
 The pumping loss increased at part throttle, because
throttling reduce the suction pressure
 Pumping loss also increase with speed
 Pumping loss affect the Volumetric efficiency
Pumping Loss
Pumping Loss
Pumping Loss
Pumping Loss

G
Pumping Loss G

-
 Exhaust Gas Blowdown
Unthrottled (WOT): Pi = Pe = 1 atm EV opens

W34  W12
imep  IV closes (state1)

EV closes
Vd
IV opens

Throttled: Pi < Pe EV opens

EV closes

Pumping work W561  ( Pi  Pe )Vd

IV closes
6’
IV opens

Supercharged: Pi > Pe
IV opens
6’
1

EV closes
Exhaust Gas Blowdown

 Volumetric efficiency affected by

 The density of fresh charge
 The exhaust gas in the clearance volume
 The design of intake and exhaust manifold
 The timing of intake and exhaust valves
 Volumetric Efficiency
 The density of fresh charge
mi P / P 1
v   1 i e mi  (m1  mR )  (m1  m6 )
 iVd k (r  1)
 As the fresh charge arrives in the hot cylinder, heat is transferred to it
from
 The hot chamber walls
 The hot residual gases
 Temperature rise reduces the density , which decrease the mass of
fresh charge admitted and a reduction in volumetric efficiency
 The volumetric efficiency increased by
 Low temperature
 High pressure of fresh charge
Volumetric Efficiency
 The exhaust gas in the clearance volume
 The residual gas occupy a portion of piston displacement
volume, thus reducing the space available to the
incoming charge.
 These exhaust products tend to rise the temperature of
the fresh charge.
Volumetric Efficiency
 The design of intake and exhaust manifold
 The exhaust manifold should be designed as enables
the exhaust products to escape readily,
 The intake manifold should be designed so as to bring in
 maximum possible fresh charge flowing in to the cylinder
 the exhaust products being forced out.
Volumetric Efficiency
 The timing of intake and exhaust valves
 Valve timing is the regulation of the points in the cycle at
which the valves are set to open and close.
 Valves requires a finite period of time to open or close for
smooth operation
 A slight lead time is necessary for proper opening and
closing.
 The design of the valve operating cam provides for the
smooth transition from one position to the other, while the
cam setting determines the timing of the valve.
 Volumetric Efficiency
 The effect of intake valve timing on the engine air capacity is indicated by
its effect on the air inducted per cylinder, per cycle.
 The intake valve timing for both a low and high speed of SI engine
 For low speed
 Opening @10o before TDC
 Closing @10o after BDC
 For high speed
 Opening @10o before TDC
 Closing @60o after TDC
 Volumetric Efficiency
 There is some point at which the charge per cylinder per cycle
become a maximum, for a particular valve setting.
 @ low speed
 If the revolutions of engine increased beyond this point, the intake
valve in effect close too soon, and the charge per cylinder per cycle is
reduced.
 @ high speed
 If the revolutions of engine increased beyond this maximum, the flow
may be chocked due to fluid friction. These losses becomes greater
than the benefit of the ram, the charge per cylinder per cycle falls off
Loss Due to Running Friction
 The losses are due to friction between
 the piston and the cylinder walls
 In various bearings
 Energy spent in operating the auxillary equipment
(cooling pump, ignition system, fan…)
 The piston ring friction increases rapidly with
engine speed.
 The bearing and auxillary friction also
increased with speed
Summary
Summary
Summary
Summary
Summary
Summary
Summary
Summary
Loss @ part and Full load
THE END