Object Oriented

Analysis & Design

 Outline
• Object Oriented Concepts and principals
• Object Oriented Analysis
• Object Oriented Design
OO Concepts and principals
 Introduction
• We live in a world of objects
• Object-Oriented view is an abstraction that
models the world in ways that help us to better
understand and navigate it
• OO approach was first proposed in the late
1960s
• As time passes, object technologies are
replacing classical software development
approaches. Why?
• Object technologies lead to reuse, OO software
is easier to maintain, to adapt, and to scale.
 OO Paradigm
• For many years, the term OO was used to
denote a software development approach that
used one of a number of OO programming
languages(e.g. Ada 95, C++, Eiffel, Smalltalk)
• Today, the OO paradigm encompasses a
complete view of software engineering
• Although any one of process models, could be
adapted for use with OO, the best choice would
be an evolutionary process model
 The OO Process Model

identify
candidate
classes
Pla n n in g
Risk Ana lysis construct look-up
nth iteration classes
C usto m e r of system in library
C o m m unic a tio n

put new extract

classes classes
in library if available

engineer
classes
C usto m e r Eng ine e ring , if unavailable
Eva lua tio n Co nstruc tio n & Re le a se
OO analysis
OO design
OO programming
OO testing
 OO Concepts
• Classes and class hierarchies
– Instances
– Inheritance
– Abstraction and hiding
• Objects
– Attributes
– Methods
– Encapsulation
– Polymorphism
• Messages
 Object

The object encapsulates

both data and the logical
procedures required to
manipulate the data method method
#1 #2
data

method
#6

method method
#5 #4

Achieves “information hiding”

 Polymorphism
• It is a characteristic that greatly reduces the
effort required to extend an existing OO
system.
• Polymorphism enables a number of different
operations to have the same name.
• For example: drawing different type of
graphs( e.g. Line, Pie, Histogram )
• It decouples objects from one another making
each more independent.
• General class graph and one subclass for
each type.
 Messages
sender object

attributes:

receiver object

attributes:
operations:

operations:

message:
[sender, return value(s)]

message: [receiver, operation, parameters]

Object Oriented Analysis
 Modeling Dimensions
1. Identification/classification of entities.
2. General-to-specific and whole-to-part entity
relationships
The modeling
3. Other entity relationships dimensions 8 and
4. Description of attributes of entities 9 are always
present with SA.
5. Large-scale model partitioning
6. States and transitions between states
7. Detailed specification for functions
8. Top-down decomposition
9. End-to-end processing sequences
10. Identification of exclusive services
11. Entity communications (via messages or events)
 Conventional vs. OO Approaches
• Is OO analysis really different from the structured
analysis approach?
– A radical change over process oriented (SA).
– An incremental change over data oriented
methodologies (IE).
• Structured Analysis (SA):
– takes a distinct input-process-output view of
requirements.
– Data are considered separately from the processes
that transform the data.
– System behavior tends to play a secondary role.
– makes heavy use of functional decomposition.
 The OOA Landscape
• Dozens of OOA method during the late 1980s and into the 1990s
are introduced.
• Each of them proposed:
– A process for the analysis of the product or system
– A set of diagrams that evolved out of the process.
– A notation that enabled the software engineer to create the analysis
model in a consistent manner.
• The most widely use were:
– The Booch method ( an evolutionary approach is maintained).
– The Rumbaugh method (Object modeling technique (OMT))
– The Jacobson method (OO Software Engineering (OOSE))
– The Coad and Yourdon method (One of the easiest)
– The Wirfs-Brock method (do not make clear distinction between
design and analysis tasks)
 OOA & OOP
• OOA is based upon OOP: Classes and
members, Objects and attributes and so on
• To define them following tasks should be done:
– Basic user requirements should be communicated
between customer and software engineer
– Classes must be identified
– Class hierarchy should be specified
– Object to object relationship should be presented
– Object behavior should be modeled
– These task should be reapplied iteratively until model
is complete
 Generic Steps for OOA
1. Elicit customer requirements for the system.
2. Identify scenarios for use-cases.
3. Select classes and objects using basic
requirements as a guide.
4. Identify attributes and operations for each
system object.
5. Define structures and hierarchies that organize
classes.
6. Build an object-behavior model.
7. Review the OO analysis model against use-
cases or scenarios.
 A Unified Approach to OOA
• Grady Booch, James Rumbaugh and Ivar Jacobson
combine the best features into a unified method called:
Unified Modeling Language (UML)
• UML allows a software engineer to express and analysis
model using a modeling notation that is governed by a
set of Syntactic, Semantic, and Pragmatic rules.
– The syntax tells us how the symbols should look and how they
are combined. (Word in natural language)
– The semantics tells us what each symbols means and how it
should be interpreted. (Meaning of words in natural language)
– The pragmatic rules define the intentions of the symbols through
which the perpose of the model is achieved and become
understandable. (The rules for constructing sentences that are
clear and understandable in natural language)
 UML and Analysis Views
• User model view. This view represents the system (product) from
the user’s (called “actors” in UML) perspective.
• Structural model view. Data and functionality is viewed from inside
the system. That is, static structure (classes, objects, and
relationships) is modeled.
• Behavioral model view. This part of the analysis model represents
the dynamic or behavioral aspects of the system.
• Implementation model view. The structural and behavioral aspects
of the system are represented as they are to be built.
• Environment model view. The structural and behavioral aspects of
the environment in which the system is to be implemented are
represented.

• UML analysis modeling focuses on the first two views of the system.
• UML design modeling addresses the other three views.
 Domain Analysis
• OO Analysis can occur at many different levels of
abstraction:
– At the business or enterprise level
– At the business area level
– At an application level
• OOA at the middle level called Domain Analysis.
• Domain Analysis is performed to create a library of
reusable classes applicable to an entire category of
applications.
• Using a robust class library produces the system faster,
cheaper and more reliable.
• But where did such a library come from? By applying
domain analysis.
 Domain Analysis Process
• The goal: to find or create those classes that are broadly applicable,
so that they may be reused.
• It can be viewed as an umbrella activity for the software process.
• The role of domain analyst is to design and build reusable
components that maybe used by many people working on similar but
not necessarily the same applications.
• Key inputs and outputs for the domain analysis process:

class taxonomies
technical literature
SOURCES OF reuse standards DOMAIN
DOMAIN existing applications DOMAIN ANALYSIS
KNOWLEDGE ANALYSIS functional models MODEL
customer surveys
domain languages
expert advice

current/future requirements
 Domain Analysis Activities (1)
• Define the domain to be investigated.
– Isolate the business area, system type, product category
– Extract both OO and non-OO items.
• OO-items such as: application and support (GUI, DB) classes,
Commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) component libraries and test
cases.
• Non-OO items such as: policies, procedures, plans, standards and
guidelines; parts of existing non-OO applications, metrics and COTS
non-OO software.
• Categorize the items extracted from the domain.
– Organize items into categories.
– Define the general defining characteristics of the categories.
– Propose a classification scheme for the categories.
– Define naming conventions for each item.
– Establish classification hierarchy when appropriate.
 Domain Analysis Activities (2)
• Collect a representative sample of applications in the
domain.
– Ensure that the application has items that fit into categories.
• Analyze each application in the sample.
– Identify candidate reusable objects.
– Indicate the reasons that the object has been identified for reuse.
– Define adaptions to the object that may also be reusable.
– Estimate the percentage of applications in the domain that make
reuse of the object.
– Identify the object by name and use configuration management
techniques to control them (chapter 9).
• Develop an analysis model for the objects.
– As a basis for design and construction of domain objects.
 OOA- A Generic View
• define use cases
• extract candidate classes
• establish basic class relationships
• define a class hierarchy
• identify attributes for each class
• specify methods that service the attributes
• indicate how classes/objects are related
• build a behavioral model
• iterate on the first five steps
 The OOA Process
• The OOA process begins with an understanding
of the manner in which the system will be used
by:
– People, if the system is human-interactive.
– Machines, if the system is involved in process control.
– Programs, if the system coordinates and controls
applications
• Once the scenario of usage has been defined,
the modeling of the software begins.
• A series of techniques may be used to gather
basic customer requirements.
Object Oriented Design
 OOD
• OOD transforms the analysis model created using OOA
into a design model that serves as a blueprint for
software construction.
• OOD results in a design that achieves a number of
different levels of modularity.
• Subsystems: Major system components.
• Objects: Data and the operations.
• Four important software design concepts:
– Abstraction
– Information Hiding
– Functional Independence
– Modularity
 OOD
• The subsystem layer: Representation
of each of the subsystems that enable
the software to achieve its customer
defined requirements.

responsibilities
• The class and object layer: The class design
hierarchies, (generalization) and
representation of objects.
message
• design
The message layer: The design
details of communication of each class and object
object with its collaborators. (external design
and internal interfaces)
subsystem
design
• The responsibilities layer: Data
Structure and algorithmic design for all
attributes and operations.
 OOA to OOD

Attributes, operations,
collaborators responsibilities
Object- design
CRC relationship
Index Cards model

message
Use cases design

Class and object

Object-Behavior
design
Model

subsystem
design

THE ANALYSIS MODEL THE DESIGN MODEL

 OOA to OOD

Analysis Model Design Model

classes objects
attributes data structures
methods algorithms
relationships messaging
behavior control
 Design Issues
• decomposability—the facility with which a design method helps the
designer to decompose a large problem into subproblems that are easier
to solve;

• composability—the degree to which a design method ensures that program

components (modules), once designed and built, can be reused to create
other systems;

• understandability—the ease with which a program component can be

understood without reference to other information or other modules;

• continuity—the ability to make small changes in a program and have these

changes manifest themselves with corresponding changes in just one or a
very few modules;

• protection—a architectural characteristic that will reduce the propagation of

side affects if an error does occur in a given module.
 Generic Components for OOD
• Problem domain component—the subsystems that are
responsible for implementing customer requirements directly;

• Human interaction component —the subsystems that

implement the user interface (this included reusable GUI
subsystems);

• Task Management Component—the subsystems that are

responsible for controlling and coordinating concurrent tasks
that may be packaged within a subsystem or among different
subsystems;

• Data management component—the subsystem that is

responsible for the storage and retrieval of objects.
Process Flow for OOD
 System Design Process
• Partition the analysis model into subsystems.
• Identify concurrency that is dictated by the problem.
• Allocate subsystems to processors and tasks.
• Develop a design for the user interface.
• Choose a basic strategy for implementing data
management.
• Identify global resources and the control
mechanisms required to access them.
• Design an appropriate control mechanism for the
system, including task management.
• Consider how boundary conditions should be
handled.
• Review and consider trade-offs.
 System Design

client request server

subsystem subsystem

contract

request
peer peer
subsystem subsystem
request
contract contract
 Subsystem Example

Control
request for status Sensor
panel assign to zone subsystem
subsystem test status

request for system status request for alarm notification

specification of type of alarm periodic check-in
periodic status check require for configuration update

Central
communication
subsystem
 Subsystem Design Criteria
• The subsystem should have a well-defined
interface through which all communication
with the rest of the system occurs.
• With the exception of a small number of
“communication classes,” the classes within
a subsystem should collaborate only with
other classes within the subsystem.
• The number of subsystems should be kept
small.
• A subsystem can be partitioned internally to
help reduce complexity.
Subsystem Collaboration Table
 Object Design
• After the hierarchy of subsystems has been developed, the objects in the
system are identified and their details are designed. Here, the designer
details out the strategy chosen during the system design. The emphasis
shifts from application domain concepts toward computer concepts. The
objects identified during analysis are etched out for implementation with an
aim to minimize execution time, memory consumption, and overall cost.
• Object design includes the following phases −
• Object identification
• Object representation, i.e., construction of design models
• Classification of operations
• Algorithm design
• Design of relationships
• Implementation of control for external interactions
• Package classes and associations into modules
 Object Design
• A protocol description establishes the interface
of an object by defining each message that the
object can receive and the related operation that
the object performs
• An implementation description shows
implementation details for each operation
implied by a message that is passed to an
object.
– information about the object's private part
– internal details about the data structures that describe
the object’s attributes
– procedural details that describe operations
 Designing Algorithms
• The operations in the objects are defined using algorithms Algorithms
focus on how it is to be done.
• There may be more than one algorithm corresponding to a given
operation. Once the alternative algorithms are identified, the optimal
algorithm is selected for the given problem domain. The metrics for
choosing the optimal algorithm are −
• Computational Complexity − Complexity determines the efficiency
of an algorithm in terms of computation time and memory
requirements.
• Flexibility − Flexibility determines whether the chosen algorithm can
be implemented suitably, without loss of appropriateness in various
environments.
• Understandability − This determines whether the chosen algorithm
is easy to understand and implement.
 Design of Relationships
• The strategy to implement the relationships needs to be chalked out
during the object design phase. The main relationships that are
addressed comprise of associations, aggregations, and inheritances.
• The designer should do the following regarding associations −
– Identify whether an association is unidirectional or bidirectional.
– Analyze the path of associations and update them if necessary.
– Implement the associations as a distinct object, in case of many–
to-many relationships; or as a link to other object in case of one–to-
one or one–to-many relationships.
– Regarding inheritances, the designer should do the following −
– Adjust the classes and their associations.
– Identify abstract classes.
– Make provisions so that behaviors are shared when needed.
 Implementation of Control
The object designer may incorporate refinements in the strategy of the state–chart
model. In system design, a basic strategy for realizing the dynamic model is made.
During object design, this strategy is aptly embellished for appropriate
implementation.
The approaches for implementation of the dynamic model are −
•Represent State as a Location within a Program − This is the traditional
procedure-driven approach whereby the location of control defines the program
state. A finite state machine can be implemented as a program. A transition forms
an input statement, the main control path forms the sequence of instructions, the
branches form the conditions, and the backward paths form the loops or iterations.
•State Machine Engine − This approach directly represents a state machine
through a state machine engine class. This class executes the state machine
through a set of transitions and actions provided by the application.
•Control as Concurrent Tasks − In this approach, an object is implemented as a
task in the programming language or the operating system. Here, an event is
implemented as an inter-task call. It preserves inherent concurrency of real objects.
 Packaging Classes
In any large project, meticulous partitioning of an implementation into modules or packages is
important. During object design, classes and objects are grouped into packages to enable multiple
groups to work cooperatively on a project.
The different aspects of packaging are −
•Hiding Internal Information from Outside View − It allows a class to be viewed as a “black box” and
permits class implementation to be changed without requiring any clients of the class to modify code.
•Coherence of Elements − An element, such as a class, an operation, or a module, is coherent if it is
organized on a consistent plan and all its parts are intrinsically related so that they serve a common
goal.
•Construction of Physical Modules − The following guidelines help while constructing physical
modules −
– Classes in a module should represent similar things or components in the same composite
object.
– Closely connected classes should be in the same module.
– Unconnected or weakly connected classes should be placed in separate modules.
– Modules should have good cohesion, i.e., high cooperation among its components.
– A module should have low coupling with other modules, i.e., interaction or interdependence
between modules should be minimum.
 Design Optimization
• The analysis model captures the logical information about the system, while the
design model adds details to support efficient information access. Before a
design is implemented, it should be optimized so as to make the
implementation more efficient. The aim of optimization is to minimize the cost in
terms of time, space, and other metrics.
• However, design optimization should not be excess, as ease of implementation,
maintainability, and extensibility are also important concerns. It is often seen
that a perfectly optimized design is more efficient but less readable and
reusable. So the designer must strike a balance between the two.
• The various things that may be done for design optimization are −
• Add redundant associations
• Omit non-usable associations
• Optimization of algorithms
• Save derived attributes to avoid re-computation of complex expressions
 Optimization of Algorithms

In object-oriented systems, optimization of data structure and

algorithms are done in a collaborative manner. Once the class
design is in place, the operations and the algorithms need to
be optimized.

Optimization of algorithms is obtained by −

• Rearrangement of the order of computational tasks
• Reversal of execution order of loops from that laid down in the
functional model
• Removal of dead paths within the algorithm
 Design Documentation
Documentation is an essential part of any software development process
that records the procedure of making the software. The design decisions
need to be documented for any non–trivial software system for
transmitting the design to others.
Usage Areas:
•Though a secondary product, a good documentation is indispensable,
particularly in the following areas −
•In designing software that is being developed by a number of developers
•In iterative software development strategies
•In developing subsequent versions of a software project
•For evaluating a software
•For finding conditions and areas of testing
•For maintenance of the software.
 Design Documentation
Contents
•A beneficial documentation should essentially include the following contents −
•High–level system architecture − Process diagrams and module diagrams
•Key abstractions and mechanisms − Class diagrams and object diagrams.
•Scenarios that illustrate the behavior of the main aspects − Behavioural
diagrams

Features
•The features of a good documentation are −
•Concise and at the same time, unambiguous, consistent, and complete
•Traceable to the system’s requirement specifications
•Well-structured
•Diagrammatic instead of descriptive