Chapter 1

CONCRETE
Roman Colosseum Sydney Opera House TOD Building
(Rome) (Sydney) (New York)

Central Plaza Infinity Tower Petronas Towers

(Hongkong) (Dubai) (Malaysia)
Versasca Dam Almendra Dam
(Switzerland) (Spain)

Shasta Dam Inguri Dam

(California) (Georgia)
Salginatobel Bridge Stupino Bridge
(Rhine) (Italy)

Rio-Niteroi Bridge Yanjinhe Bridge

(Brazil) (China)
Concrete;

 few would argue that concrete is an important and useful material

 after all, concrete is the backbone of the world's infrastructure, used
in vast amounts to make roads, buildings, bridges, and other
structures
 generally considered a "boring" material, about which everything
important must be known by now
 due to its complexity there are still things that scientists do not know
about the chemistry and microscopic structure

“there is still significant potential for improving concrete

to make better and longer-lasting structures”
Concrete;
 …derived from the Latin word “concretus” which means “growing
together”
 mixture of cement, aggregates and water
 when mixed in specific proportions, it hardens to a strong stony
consistency over varying lengths of time
Reinforced Concrete;
 concrete in which the undesirably low tensile strength and elasticity
of the concrete component are averted by including reinforcing
structures of high tensile strength in the mass of the concrete
 reinforced concrete can be classified as “precast” or “cast–in–situ”
concrete
 reinforced concrete, resists not only compression but also bending
and other direct tensile actions
Advantages of Concrete Structures;
 it has considerable compressive strength as compared to most
other materials
 reinforced concrete has great resistance to the actions of fire and
water
 concrete building have 1-3 hour fire rating with no fire proofing (steel
and timber require fireproofing to obtain this rating)
 best structural material available for situations where water is
present
 reinforced concrete structures are very rigid
 greater stiffness and mass reduces oscillations (wind), floor
vibrations (walking)
Advantages of Concrete Structures;

 low–maintenance material
 availability of materials
• sand, gravel, cement, water and concrete mixing facilities widely
available
• reinforcement – easy to transport compared to structural steel
 very long service life
 only economical material available for footings, basement walls,
piers
 ability to be cast into an variety of shapes
 a lower grade of skilled labor is required for erection
Disadvantages of Concrete Structures;

 concrete has a very low tensile strength, requiring the use of tensile
reinforcement
 forms are required to hold the concrete in place until it hardens
sufficiently
 low strength per unit of weight of concrete leads to heavy members
and members will be relatively large
 properties of concrete vary widely due to variations in its
proportioning and mixing
Properties of Concrete;
 Compressive Strength of Concrete;
• compressive strength of concrete is determined by testing to
failure 28-day-old 6” x 12” concrete cylinders at a specified rate of
loading
fcr - average cylinder strength
f’c - compressive strength for design

Compressive Strength of Concrete

Properties of Concrete;
 
 Tensile Strength of Concrete;
• tensile strength of concrete varies from 8% to 15% of its
compressive strength
ft =
• major reason for this small strength is the fact that concrete is
filled with fine cracks
• tensile strength of concrete is ignored in design

Tensile Strength of Concrete

Properties of Concrete;
 Shear Strength of Concrete;
• control by shear strength is significant only in rare cases, since
shear stresses must be limited to continually lower values in order
to protect the concrete from failure in diagonal tension
 : 6000 - 17000 MPa (1 - 3 x 106 psi)

Shear Strength of Concrete

Properties of Concrete;

 Poisson’s Ratio of Concrete;

• as concrete cylinder is subjected to compressive loads, it not only
shortens in length but also expands laterally
• ratio of lateral expansion to the longitudinal shortening
• values vary from about 0.11 for higher-strength concrete and as
high as 0.21 for the weaker-grade concrete, with an average value
of about 0.16

Poisson’s Ratio of Concrete

Properties of Concrete;
 Static Modulus of Elasticity;
• mathematical description of a material's tendency to be deformed
elastically when force is applied
• concrete has no clear-cut modulus of elasticity
• values varies differently with;
 concrete strengths
 concrete age
 type of loading
 characteristics and proportions of the cement and aggregates
Properties of Concrete;
 Static Modulus of Elasticity;
• “initial modulus” is the slope of the stress-strain diagram at the
origin of the curve
• “tangent modulus” is the slope of a tangent to the curve at some
point along the curve
• slope of line drawn from origin to a point on curve between 25%
and 50% of its ultimate compressive strength is referred as
“secant modulus”
• “apparent modulus” or long-term modulus is determined by using
stress and strains obtained after load has been applied for certain
length of time
Properties of Concrete;
Properties of Concrete;
 
 Static Modulus of Elasticity;
• from NSCP, Sec. 408.6, the following can be used for calculating
the modulus of elasticity of concrete;
 for f’c between 1500 – 2500 kg/mm3;

Ec = 1.5(0.043)
 for normal weight concrete;
Ec = 4700
Properties of Concrete;
 Dynamic Modulus of Elasticity;
• ratio of stress to strain under “vibratory conditions”
• corresponds to very small instantaneous strains
• obtained by sonic tests
• usually 20% to 40% higher than the static modulus of elasticity
Properties of Concrete;
 Shrinkage;
• mixing water that was used, work its way out of concrete to
surface
• as a result, concrete shrinks and cracks
• amount of shrinkage is dependent on exposure
• to minimize shrinkage, it is desirable to;

 keep the amount of mixing water to a minimum

 cure the concrete well
 place the concrete for walls, floors and other large items in
small sections
 construction joints to control position of cracks
 use shrinkage reinforcements
Properties of Concrete;
 Creep
• under sustained compressive loads, concrete will continue to
deform for long periods of time
• after the initial deformation occurs, the additional deformation is
called creep or plastic flow
• if a compressive load is applied to a concrete member, an
immediate or instantaneous or elastic shortening occurs
• final deformation will usually be 2 to 3 times the initial deformation
• perhaps 75% of the total creep will occur during the first year
Properties of Concrete;
Stress–Strain Curve;
• knowledge of stress-strain relationship of concrete is essential for
developing all analysis and design terms and procedures in
concrete structures
 the lower the strength of concrete, the higher the failure strain
 there is an apparent reduction in ductility with increased
strength
 length of the initial relatively linear portion increases with
increase in the compressive strength of concrete

Stress–Strain Curve
Properties of Concrete;

Compatibility of Concrete and Steel;

• the advantages of each material seem to compensate for the
disadvantages of the other
• the materials bond together well due to chemical adhesion, the
natural roughness of the bars, and closely spaced rib-shaped
deformations rolled on bar surfaces
• reinforcing bars are subject to corrosion, but concrete provides
them with excellent protection
• concrete and steelwork behave very well relative to temperature
changes because their coefficients of thermal expansion are quite
close to each other
General Characteristics of a Good Concrete;
 Compactness;
• space occupied by concrete should be filled with solid aggregate
and cement gel free of honeycombing
General Characteristics of a Good Concrete;

 Strength;
• concrete should have sufficient strength and internal resistance to
various types of failures
 Water/Cement Ratio;
• the water/cement ratio should be suitably controlled to give the
required design strength
 Texture;
• exposed concrete surfaces should have a dense and hard texture
that can withstand adverse weather conditions
Factors Affecting the Strength of Concrete;
 Quality of cement
 Proportion of cement in relation to water in the mix
 Strength and cleanliness of aggregates
 Adhesion between cement paste and aggregate
 Adequate mixing of the ingredients
 Proper placing, and compaction of fresh concrete
 Curing at a temperature not below 500F
Considerations in Design of Concrete Members;
 Concrete proportions
 Selection of bars and bar spacing
 Concrete protection for reinforcement
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