Professional Documents
Culture Documents
• Prevailing technologies:
• Batteries
• Flywheels
• Ultracapacitors
1 © Alexis Kwasinski, 2012
Energy Storage
• Uses of energy storage devices in DG:
• Power buffer for slow, bad load followers, DG technologies.
• Energy supply for stochastic generation profiles.
•Main technologies:
• Lead Acid
• Nickel-Cadmium
• Nickel-Metal Hydride
• Li-ion
• Lead-acid batteries are worse than other technologies based on all the other
characteristics. Disposal is another important issue.
http://polarpowerinc.com/info/operation20/operation25.htm
H2 O
PbO2 Pb
H2O
H2 O
H2O H 2O
2H2O H SO
2 4
2e- 2H+
O22- SO42- Pb2+
2H+
PbO2 H2SO4 PbSO4 Pb
Pb 2+
SO 4
2-
2e-
PbSO4
H2O
H2O
H2O
H2O H2O
• The nominal voltage produced by this reaction is about 2 V/cell. Cells are
usually connected in series to achieve higher voltages, usually 6V, 12 V, 24 V
and 48V.
9 © Alexis Kwasinski, 2012
Lead-acid batteries
• As the battery discharges, sulfuric acid concentration decreases.
• Charging follows the inverse process, but a small portion of the lead sulfate
remains on the electrode plates.
• Every cycle, some more lead sulfate deposits build up on the electrode plates,
reducing the reaction area and, hence, negatively affecting the battery
performance.
• Electrode plates sulfatation is one of the primary effects that affects battery
life.
• Temperature
http://polarpowerinc.com/info/operation20/operation25.htm
http://polarpowerinc.com/info/operation20/operation25.htm
• Some manufacturers of battery chargers implement algorithms that increase
the float voltage at lower temperatures and increase the float voltage at higher
temperatures.
14 © Alexis Kwasinski, 2012
Lead-acid batteries discharge
• The output voltage changes during the discharge due to the change in internal
voltage and resistances with the state of charge.
Coup de Fouet
Patent 6924622
Battery capacity measurement
Anbuky and Pascoe
• Now the battery is discharged with a constant current ID, a voltage VD during a
time ΔTD. The final state of charge coincides with the original state of charge.
Then the energy delivered by the battery during this process is:
Eout = IDVD ΔTD
V I T
E D D D VC
• So the energy efficiency is VC I C TC
• Hence, the energy efficiency equals the product of the voltage efficiency and
the Coulomb efficiency. Since lead acid batteries are usually charged at the
float voltage of about 2.25 V/cell and the discharge voltage is about 2 V/cell, the
voltage efficiency is about 0.88. In average the coulomb efficiency is about
0.92. Hence, the energy efficiency is around 0.80
17 © Alexis Kwasinski, 2012
Lead-acid batteries calculations
• Most calculations are based on some specific rate of discharge and then a linear
discharge is assumed.
•The linear assumption is usually not true. The nonlinearity is more evident for faster
discharge rates. For example, in the battery below it takes about 2 hours to discharge
the battery at 44 A but it takes 4 hours to discharge the battery at 26 A. Of course, 26x2
is not 44.
• A better solution is to consider the manufacturer discharge curves and only use a linear
approximation to interpolate the appropriate discharge curve.
• In the example below, the battery can deliver 10 A continuously for about 12 hours.
Since during the discharge the voltage is around 12 V, the power is 120 W and the
energy is about 14.5 kWh
10 A continuous
discharge curve
approximation
Discharge
limit
Nominal curve
18 © Alexis Kwasinski, 2012