Weathering and erosion

Weathering

 The process whereby rocks exposed to the weather are broken up, altered, decay or
disintegrate into soil in situ at or near the surface of the earth.
 The rocks are broken up into its constituent minerals or particles in a slow process.
 the unconsolidated weathered materials which accumulate are termed regolith.
Two types of Weathering

 Physical
 chemical
 Erosion--- is the process of earth sculpturing by natural agents such as running
water, ice, wind and waves.

 Denudation ------ includes all processes of weathering including mechanical and

chemical, mass movements, transportation and natural agents of erosion through
which the earths surface is reduced.it is also called Degradation.
Physical or mechanical weathering

This is the braking down of rocks predominately in areas of extreme cold or aridity,
where there are no chemical changes to the rock.
Processes of physical weathering

 Thermal expansion and contraction- temperature change processes

 Frost action or frost weathering activity
 Pressure release
 Salt weathering –haloclasty
 Biological processes- plant and animal action.
Thermal expansion and contraction

thermal expansion and contraction – rocks are broken up in smaller fragments

caused by great daily extremes of temperatures.

Eg high temperature during the day result in the expansion of rocks , rapid cooling
at night results in rocks undergoing contraction.

The expansion and contraction of rocks through heating and cooling set up stress in
rocks .eventually rocks are broken up grain by grain, a process called grandular
disintegration.
 Through temperature changes rocks are broken up into shells or layers are
separated or flake off in succession, parallel to the surface and in concentric
layers, such process is termed exfoliation ( literally mean the removal of leaves)
and is common in African savannas
 The term onion weathering is also applied since such rocks as granite peel or
flake off in layers similar to that of an onion.it is also called spalling.
 Rocks with well-defined joints are broken up into blocks, due to the process of
expansion and contraction. This results in block disintegration. Blocks
disintegrate along new lines of weakness producing angular rock fragments. The
angular rock wastes or coarse debris deposited at the base of mountains are
termed scree.
Frost action

 A mechanical weathering process caused by alternate or repeated freezing and

thawing of water in pores and cracks, joints, sub joints and fissures.
Frost wedging

 This is when rocks especially bedded rocks, to split into plates. The ice acts as a
wedge, a process term frost wedging.
Pressure release on rocks

 Rocks within the earths crust are under high pressure than rocks which are
exposed at the surface . The pressure is caused by the weight of rocks above it.
Due to the process of erosion and denudation , the surface rocks are gradually
eroded, exposing the underlying rocks to the surface.
With less pressure these rocks become exposed to high temperatures and moisture in
the atmosphere . They eventually expand, crack and break up.
The process by which rocks are fractured due to removal of the overlying rock or
ice is termed Dilation
Salt weathering

 Salt weathering or haloclasty, is the disintegration of rocks as a result of physical

changes produced by salt crystallization, salt hydration and thermal expansion of
salt.
 This process is common in deserts and coastal areas where the water from
evaporates from cracks and pores in the rocks. The crystals exert expansive
stresses as they grow. This cause the rocks to break up.
Biological processes

 The roots of plants act as a mechanical wedge in crevices or cracks in rocks

causing them to widen and split apart.
Pressure is exerted on the surrounding rocks. The pre existing joints are widened.
Eg a seed which germinate deep in the cracks of a rock eventually produces large
roots which act as a wedge, thus widening and splitting the rock.
Chemical weathering

 This is the chemical decomposition of rocks as their minerals react with rain and
water. The chemistry of the rock is altered. The original mineral is destroyed and
new mineral with new crystals are formed. This involve the reaction with rain
water, gases and minerals.
 The main chemical weathering process are, oxidation and reduction, hydration
and hydrolysis, solution and carbonation and biological and chemical changes.
Oxidation and reduction

 Oxygen, when dissolved in rain water, reacts with rock minerals such as iron to
form chemical compounds such as oxides and hydroxides. These disintegrate
and reduce rocks.
Hydration and hydrolysis

 Hydration is the partial decomposition of rocks by water. It is the process by

which minerals absorb water. The rocks swell and are softened . This
combination results in the formation of new minerals and in the expansion of
rocks.

 The increased volume of water causes hydrated crystals to grow, thus exerting
pressure on the rocks, which results in disintegration.
 Hydration includes exfoliation, the process by which the outer layer is peel off.
Hydration produces round boulder and dome shape rocks. It is caused by salt
crystals in rocks which undergo expansion.
 The water containing dissolved salts, is drawn up from underground towards the
surface by capillary action. When water penetrate rocks such as basalt and
granite their outer shells swell and expand. This termed spheroidal weathering
their outer shells become loosened and flake off.
hydrolysis

 Hydrolysis – is the decomposition of organic compounds through their reaction

with water. Hydrolysis is the process by which new substances are formed when
minerals in the rocks combine with water. It is a chemical reaction involving
water.

 Water and carbonic acid combine with rock minerals such as potassium,
feldspars ( in granite) and micas to form insoluble precipitates such as Kaolin or
china clay. Clay expend when wet and contracts when dry this result in
disintegration.
Solution and carbonation

 Carbon dioxide, when dissolved in rain water, forms a weak acid solution from
which carbonation is produced. Carbonation is the reaction of carbonate or
bicarbonate ( hydrogen carbonate )ions with minerals to dissolve. Eg granite
contain feldspar and this is subjected to rotting by carbonic acid and rain water.
 The weak acid solution causes limestone rocks to dissolve and be removed as
calcium bicarbonate Ca(HCO).the surface becomes pitted with sink holes .
Limestone pavements are formed.

 Limestone pavement consist of low and widened ridges known as Clint's which
have been eroded and enlarged along their joints and separated by deep and
narrow fissures known as grikes.
 Where limestone rocks contain impurities such as quartz and clay, they are
weathered to form a red soil known as terra rosa.
Biological chemical changes.

These are changes brought about by plants and animals. some plants such as fungi
and lichens absorbs chemical substances from rocks. Water containing bacteria
attacks mineral matter in rocks. Organic acids are produced and this helps to break
down organic matter in the soil. Lichens produce acids which dissolve iron and
other elements in rock.
the weathering and erosive action of plants on limestone rocks produce
BIOKARST features eg those relating to boring and digestive actions.
when vegetation decays humus is formed. Water draining through the humus
becomes acidic.
metallic icons in a rock or mineral are removed chemically by biological
weathering in a process termed chelation. The rocks are eaten away by acids from
soil humus. This is an important aspect of rock disintegration.
In coastal areas where there are animals such as limpets they produce a type of
acid which attacks rocks causing them to disintegrate.
Kopjes or tors

 Boulder standing one on top of the other in cold areas are known as tors, eg granite tors in
tropical savanna areas, they are termed Kopjes.

 They are formed as a result of the differential rate of weathering in well-jointed rocks
beneath the earths surface moisture penetrate in joints causing rocks to weather
chemically , the lower depth line in which weathering is limited is know as the basal
surface of weathering.
 Frost action also causes the irregular bedrock outcrops or tors to form
Features produced by rain action

 Rain water activity can cause considerable erosion in arid and semi arid regions where the
rainfall is low and unreliable, and in areas where the vegetation is sparse or the soil is
exposed.
 It induces soil erosion by gullying. Features resulting from rain action are gullying, earth
pillars ( hoodoos), and mass wasting ( mass movement of soil).
gullying

 The impact of raindrops on steep and bare slopes results in the formation of rills--- long
and narrow channels which eventually become wider and integrated to form gullies .

 Gullies --- are localized feature and their formation is widespread on bare slopes, in areas
where the rocks are less resistant to erosion, on slopes where the vegetation has been
removed directly by humans, and in road cuttings. Gullies are common in the Scotland
District of Barbados.
Earth pillars, or hoodoo

 This is a tall column of earthly landmass composed of soft, unconsolidated materials such
as clay and capped and protected by boulders or by hard rock masses. Its height can be
over 10m

 The boulder shield the softer materials directly from rain water erosion or denudation.
 Once the protective layer is eroded, the rate of erosion of the softer underlying materials
increas
 Eroded materials form SCREE at the base of the slopes. Some earth pillars are capped by
harder resistant materials such as volcanic bombs in Tenerife and volcanic tuff in Goreme
in turkey.
Mass movement

 This is the movement of debris down a slope due to lubricating action of rainwater and
the influence of gravity.

 The degree of movement is influence by, the angle of the slope, the nature of the material,
and the structure of the rock.
 The wearing away of land surface by mechanical and chemical weathering and by agents
of erosion such as water, wind and waves is called denudation. Weathered material are
transported by agents of erosion, wind and water.
Classification of mass movement

 Slow downhill movement

1) soil creep
2) slumping
Fast downhill movement
1) landslide
2) earthflow
3) mudflow
 Soil creep --- a slow, gentle and continuous downhill movement of overburden as
weathered mantle, rock debris or regolith under the influence of gravity.

 The thawing of ice in the summer can cause the saturated surface layers to slide or slip
over the lubricated subsurface soil. The process is term SOLIFLUCTION.
 The soil water cannot move downward due to the impermeable frozen soil. The top layer
is the active layer.
 The surface may crack to produce a series of small ledges or steps known as terracettes.
Earth creep( earth flow)

 a slow downward movement of saturated soil such as clay or shale down a gentle slope.
The soil is saturated by rain water, and the movement is influence by gravity on gentle to
steep slopes, particularly in humid regions.
 the soil become saturated by rain water and move sluggishly downhill. The saturated soil
pulls away from the slope, leaving a cliff and then continues to move downwards as a
mass of material.
Slumping

 Slipping and slumping of soil takes place where permeable rocks overly impermeable
rock strata e.g, clay.

 The impermeable layer becomes lubricated when rain falls as the water penetrate the
permeable layer.

 The underlying impermeable layer provides a slippery surface for the soil to slide and
slump downhill.
Fast downhill movement

 A land slide is a fast gravitational movement of large masses of earth material, from a cliff
or steep slope along a definite plane. They may occur where the strata dip downhill.
Landslides or landslips are common in high relief, where rocks are undercut and where
water lubricates slides planes along encampment, this is along joints or faults that are
steeply inclined.
Rock fall

 A form of landslide, is a rapid movement. It is the free falling of rocks from a

mountainous slope under the influence of gravity. Rocks are sometimes loosened by frost
action.
 the rocks slide down a plane of weakness.

 Rockslide is the movement of bedrock along bedding joints or planes down a slope. Rock
debris falling from cliffs is deposited on the steep slopes below forming a scree slope or
talus slope.
 With an extensive apron or fan shaped deposit at its base. The scree is generally unstable
and can easily slide downwards eg in the Scotland District of Barbados.
Mud flow

 This is a fast downward movement of consolidated earth resulting from heavy rains in
mountainous areas. A mass of soil saturated from heavy rains water, together with
unconsolidated earth moves downhill, especially where rain is torrential.
 When a volcano erupts the volcanic ash and dust ejected may settle and move as mud
flow during periods of heavy rainfall. E.g the eruption of Soufriere in St Vincent on may
18, 1979 left the slopes of the volcano bare of vegetation .

 The slopes became lubricated and the volcanic materials move downhill under the
influence of gravity as LAHARS ( volcanic mud flow)
Human – induced activities

Human interference in soil stability causes mass movement. Such actions are the result of;
 Strip mining e.g coal or bauxite extraction. Loosened material move as earth flows or
mud flows when lubricated by heavy rain.

 Removal of natural vegetation --- when the natural vegetation is removed for either
agricultural activities or settlement, more water is able to run off. Because they are no
root of plants to hold soil together.
 Engineering works, building construction and excavation---- during excavation, the
undercutting of steep slopes is undermined. It involves digging, cutting, blasting of
materials and dredging.

 Materials from up hill is supported by the base slope. Eg when the base slope is removed
during construction, slope failures occurs, resulting in the mass movement of soil.
Effects on the environment

 Properties are damage and destroyed, lives are lost as large settlement become devastated.
Utility posts are uprooted and fences become distorted, railways lines are damaged.
 agricultural land laid waste as crops are destroyed and the drainage is block with debris.
 Forest trees are uprooted etc. CAN YOU THINK OF ANY OTHER EFFECTS ON
THE ENVIRONMENT.
How can man help to prevent the movement
of soil.

 Building walls and terraces on hillsides. – this helps to keep the soil from moving.
 Planting vegetation on steep slopes– the vegetation should not be removed where the land
is subjected to mass movement.
 Digging trenches and providing good drainage so that the soil will not become saturated
and lubricated. There will be free flow of water and the soil will be stable.
 Avoid building settlement facilities in such areas e.g glacial mountains areas where
landslides and avalanches are frequent.