UNIT 2 Geography Self-Study and Distance Learning

GEOGRAPHY
CAPE UNIT 2
SELF-STUDY AND DISTANCE LEARNING
Table of Contents
1. GLOBAL ATMOSPHERIC CONDITIONS ........................................... 9
General Objective ............................................................................................................................................................... 9
Specific Objectives .............................................................................................................................................................. 9
Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................................ 9
Content ............................................................................................................................................................................... 9
Global Heat Budget ........................................................................................................................................................... 10
The Atmosphere ................................................................................................................................................................ 10
Heat budget, transfers in the atmosphere ....................................................................................................................... 11
The radiation balance ....................................................................................................................................................... 11
Albedo ........................................................................................................................................................................... 12
Insolation ...................................................................................................................................................................... 12
Measurement of heat ....................................................................................................................................................... 14
Factors influencing global atmospheric pressure and circulation .................................................................................... 15
Winds in the upper troposphere .................................................................................................................................. 16
Measurement of atmospheric pressure and winds ...................................................................................................... 17
Moisture in the Atmosphere ............................................................................................................................................. 18
Condensation .................................................................................................................................................................... 18
Raindrop formation ....................................................................................................................................................... 19
Measurement of humidity and precipitation ................................................................................................................... 19
Key points .......................................................................................................................................................................... 19
Conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................................... 19
2. WEATHER SYSTEMS, CLIMATIC CHANGE, MICROCLIMATE ......... 21

Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................... 21
Content ............................................................................................................................................................................. 21
Air Masses and Weather Systems. .................................................................................................................................... 23
Air masses ..................................................................................................................................................................... 23
Fronts ............................................................................................................................................................................ 24
Depressions ................................................................................................................................................................... 24
Anticyclones .................................................................................................................................................................. 25
Hurricane Damage ........................................................................................................................................................ 26
Microclimates.................................................................................................................................................................... 27
Urban microclimates ..................................................................................................................................................... 27
Rural microclimates ...................................................................................................................................................... 28
Mountain microclimates ............................................................................................................................................... 28
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Other local winds .......................................................................................................................................................... 28
Weather systems .............................................................................................................................................................. 29
Reading and interpreting synoptic charts Isobars ........................................................................................................ 29
Climate Change ............................................................................................................................................................. 29
Natural causes ............................................................................................................................................................... 29
Human influence ........................................................................................................................................................... 30
Global warming ............................................................................................................................................................. 30
Conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................................... 31
Key Points .......................................................................................................................................................................... 31
3. VEGETATION TYPES ...................................................................... 32

Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................... 32
Content ............................................................................................................................................................................. 32
Distribution and Characteristics of Types of Vegetation .................................................................................................. 32
Tropical Rainforest ........................................................................................................................................................ 32
Opportunities and problems of rainforest development ............................................................................................. 33
Iwokrama, Guyana ........................................................................................................................................................ 35
Northern temperate coniferous forest ......................................................................................................................... 35
Tropical grasslands ........................................................................................................................................................ 36
Temperate grasslands ................................................................................................................................................... 38
Vegetation Variation on a Local Scale ............................................................................................................................... 39
Rock type ....................................................................................................................................................................... 39
Altitude.......................................................................................................................................................................... 39
Vegetation study ............................................................................................................................................................... 39
Analysis ......................................................................................................................................................................... 40
Key Points .......................................................................................................................................................................... 41
Conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................................... 41
4. SOIL .............................................................................................. 43

General objective .............................................................................................................................................................. 43
Specific objectives ............................................................................................................................................................. 43
Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................... 43
Content ............................................................................................................................................................................. 43
Factors Influencing Soil Formation ................................................................................................................................... 43
Parent material ............................................................................................................................................................. 43
Climate .......................................................................................................................................................................... 44
Biotic ............................................................................................................................................................................. 44
Topography ................................................................................................................................................................... 44
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Time .............................................................................................................................................................................. 44
Soil‐Forming Processes ..................................................................................................................................................... 45
Soil Properties ................................................................................................................................................................... 46
Profile ............................................................................................................................................................................ 46
Inorganic components .................................................................................................................................................. 46
Soils under Tropical Rainforests and Temperate Grasslands ............................................................................................ 47
Temperate Grasslands ...................................................................................................................................................... 47
Soils under Temperate Grasslands.................................................................................................................................... 48
Soils in the Field. ............................................................................................................................................................... 49
Soil Erosion and Soil Conservation .................................................................................................................................... 49
Soil Erosion .................................................................................................................................................................... 49
Soil conservation ........................................................................................................................................................... 50
Agronomic Methods ..................................................................................................................................................... 51
Key Points .......................................................................................................................................................................... 51
Conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................................... 51
5. ECONOMIC STRUCTURE ............................................................... 52

General objectives ............................................................................................................................................................ 52
Specific objective .............................................................................................................................................................. 52
Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................... 52
Content ............................................................................................................................................................................. 52
Characteristics of Economic Activities .............................................................................................................................. 52
Primary Sector ............................................................................................................................................................... 52
Secondary Sector .......................................................................................................................................................... 52
Tertiary Sector ............................................................................................................................................................... 53
Quaternary Sector ......................................................................................................................................................... 54
Quinary Sector .............................................................................................................................................................. 54
Relative importance of economic activities .................................................................................................................. 56
Reasons for Changes in Relative Importance of Sectors .............................................................................................. 56
Changes in More Developed Countries (MDCs) ........................................................................................................... 57
Key Points .......................................................................................................................................................................... 57
Conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................................... 57
6. AGRICULTURE .............................................................................. 59

General Objective ............................................................................................................................................................. 59
Specific Objectives ............................................................................................................................................................ 59
Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................... 59
Content ............................................................................................................................................................................. 59
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Types of Agriculture .......................................................................................................................................................... 59
Modern Farming in the European Union .......................................................................................................................... 61
Changes in Farming Practices Due to the Cap .................................................................................................................. 62
Case Study: Dairy farming in the Netherlands .............................................................................................................. 63
Traditional Agriculture in the Caribbean .......................................................................................................................... 64
Sugar cane ..................................................................................................................................................................... 64
Other Commercial Crops ‐ Potential for Growth .......................................................................................................... 65
Small farming ................................................................................................................................................................ 66
Non‐traditional Agriculture in the Caribbean ................................................................................................................... 67
Aquaculture ................................................................................................................................................................... 67
Hydroponics .................................................................................................................................................................. 67
Agro‐forestry ................................................................................................................................................................. 68
Factors influencing farming .............................................................................................................................................. 69
Environmental ............................................................................................................................................................... 69
Economic ....................................................................................................................................................................... 69
Cultural .......................................................................................................................................................................... 70
Political .......................................................................................................................................................................... 70
Environmental Impact of Agriculture................................................................................................................................ 71
Environmental impact of agriculture in MDCs .............................................................................................................. 71
Environmental conflicts arising from agriculture in MDCs ........................................................................................... 71
Environmental impact of agriculture in LDCs ............................................................................................................... 72
Environmental conflicts arising from agriculture in LDCs ............................................................................................. 72
Von Thunen's model of rural land use .............................................................................................................................. 73
Potential impact of climate change on farming systems in LDCs ................................................................................. 75
Use of topographical maps to examine agricultural activity ........................................................................................ 78
Key Points .......................................................................................................................................................................... 79
Conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................................... 79
7. INUSTRY ........................................................................................ 81

General objective .............................................................................................................................................................. 81
Specific objectives ............................................................................................................................................................. 81
Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................... 81
Content ............................................................................................................................................................................. 82
Factors Influencing Industrial Location and the Relevance of Weber .............................................................................. 82
Traditional factors ......................................................................................................................................................... 82
Weber’s theory of industrial location ........................................................................................................................... 82
Factors Influencing Industrial Development and Change in a Major Industrial Region in MDC ...................................... 84
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Development ................................................................................................................................................................. 85
Change factors .............................................................................................................................................................. 85
Change in traditional factors ......................................................................................................................................... 86
Deindustrialization ........................................................................................................................................................ 86
The New International Division of Labour (NIDL) ......................................................................................................... 87
Industrial Change in LDCs .............................................................................................................................................. 88
Approaches to and Problems of industrial Development in the Caribbean ................................................................. 88
Approaches ................................................................................................................................................................... 89
Problems ....................................................................................................................................................................... 89
Case study Trinidad and Tobago ................................................................................................................................... 89
The Informal Sector ....................................................................................................................................................... 90
Environmental Impact of Industry in MDCs and LDCs .................................................................................................. 91
Key Points .......................................................................................................................................................................... 91
Conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................................... 92
8. TOURISM ....................................................................................... 93

Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................... 93
Content ............................................................................................................................................................................. 93
Types of Tourism, Recreation and Leisure ........................................................................................................................ 93
Social and Economic Factors Influencing the Growth and Changing Nature of Tourism ................................................. 95
Economic factors ........................................................................................................................................................... 95
Social factors ................................................................................................................................................................. 96
Island and Mainland Tourism ............................................................................................................................................ 97
Location ......................................................................................................................................................................... 97
Organisation .................................................................................................................................................................. 97
Pattern of arrivals ......................................................................................................................................................... 97
Tourism in a Caribbean Territory .................................................................................................................................. 99
Effect of Tourism on the Environment in LDCs and MDCs .............................................................................................. 100
Physical Environment .................................................................................................................................................. 100
Built Environment ....................................................................................................................................................... 100
Social Environment ..................................................................................................................................................... 100
Key Points ........................................................................................................................................................................ 101
Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................................................... 101
9. DEVELOPMENT AND UNDERDEVELOPMENT .............................. 102

General Objective ........................................................................................................................................................... 102
Specific Objectives .......................................................................................................................................................... 102
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................................... 102
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Content ........................................................................................................................................................................... 102
Development ................................................................................................................................................................... 102
Sustainable development ........................................................................................................................................... 105
Economic and non – economic indicators of development ....................................................................................... 106
Data Collection ............................................................................................................................................................ 109
Key Points ........................................................................................................................................................................ 110
Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................................................... 111
10. GLOBAL DISPARITY .................................................................. 112

General Objectives .......................................................................................................................................................... 112
Specific Objectives .......................................................................................................................................................... 112
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................................... 112
Content ........................................................................................................................................................................... 112
Definitions: Poverty, Life Expectancy and Gender .......................................................................................................... 112
Poverty ........................................................................................................................................................................ 112
Life expectancy............................................................................................................................................................ 113
Gender ........................................................................................................................................................................ 113
Poverty ‐ distribution .................................................................................................................................................. 113
Life expectancy – distribution ..................................................................................................................................... 114
Education .................................................................................................................................................................... 115
The status of women .................................................................................................................................................. 115
Colonialism .................................................................................................................................................................. 118
Rostow's model of development ................................................................................................................................ 120
Dependency theory ..................................................................................................................................................... 121
Small Island Developing States (SIDS) ......................................................................................................................... 121
The Consequences of Global Disparities ......................................................................................................................... 124
Key Points ........................................................................................................................................................................ 125
Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................................................... 125
11. REGIONAL AND LOCAL DISPARITIES IN DEVELOPMENT ......... 127

General objective ............................................................................................................................................................ 127
Specific objectives ........................................................................................................................................................... 127
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................................... 127
Content ........................................................................................................................................................................... 127
Myrdal's cumulative causation model ............................................................................................................................ 127
Application of Myrdal to regional disparities in income ............................................................................................. 128
Spearman’s Rank Correlation Coefficient (Rs) ............................................................................................................ 132
Friedmann’s Core – Periphery Model ......................................................................................................................... 133
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Core – periphery and urban rural disparities in colonial Malaya................................................................................ 134
Key Points ........................................................................................................................................................................ 137
Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................................................... 137
12. MEASURES TO OVERCOME DISPARITIES ................................. 138

General objective ............................................................................................................................................................ 138
Specific objectives ........................................................................................................................................................... 138
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................................... 138
Content ........................................................................................................................................................................... 138
Forms of Aid .................................................................................................................................................................... 138
Disadvantages of multilateral aid ............................................................................................................................... 140
Conditionalities ........................................................................................................................................................... 140
Non‐governmental aid and charity aid ....................................................................................................................... 140
Potential problems with international charities ......................................................................................................... 141
Global Patterns of Aid ................................................................................................................................................. 141
Donors ......................................................................................................................................................................... 142
Recipients .................................................................................................................................................................... 144
Impact of Aid ............................................................................................................................................................... 146
Aid impact ................................................................................................................................................................... 147
Aid that works ............................................................................................................................................................. 148
Debt Relief ................................................................................................................................................................... 149
Impact of Debt on Poor Countries .............................................................................................................................. 150
Appropriate Technology ............................................................................................................................................. 151
How appropriate is the Technology ............................................................................................................................ 151
Key Points ........................................................................................................................................................................ 152
Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................................................... 152
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1. GLOBAL ATMOSPHERIC CONDITIONS
General Objective
 On the completion of this module you should understand the principles governing climate.
Specific Objectives
You should be able to:
 Explain the factors affecting the receipt of solar radiation.

 Explain the factor influencing atmospheric circulation.
 Explain the conditions influencing and resulting from moisture in the atmosphere.
Introduction
This module examines the atmosphere on a global scale it deals with the broad factors which result in different climatic
conditions across the globe. As one writer explained, ‘Air is a curious thing. One tends to think because it is invisible it isn’t
there. What you can’t see doesn’t exist. But air is tough, elastic and resistant and the harder you dig into it the more solid it
becomes. Atmospheric conditions are crucial to human life and activities and are closely monitored. The atmospheric shell of
gases provides vital oxygen, water vapour and other gases. Any major change in the characteristics of this ‘shell’ could mean
the end of life on the planet.
The atmosphere can be considered as a large heat machine, transferring the suns energy between itself and the earth’s surface.
The composition of the atmosphere together with these horizontal as well as vertical transfers maintains an average global
temperature of 140° C. The temperature of the Earth, unlike that of its nearest planetary neighbours Venus, which is too hot,
and Mars, which is too cold, sustains life in its present form. Factors, such as latitude, altitude, continentally, winds/ocean
current, result in climatic variations with time and place.
The force of gravity influences all atmospheric processes. The air is held to the earth by gravity and closer to the ground the
air is compressed into an increasingly smaller space by the weight of the air above it. The combined force is known as
atmospheric pressure, the force that the air exerts on its surroundings. Atmospheric pressure decreases with altitude. Gravity
forces air from areas of high pressure to areas of low and air moves both horizontally as winds and vertically as up and down
draughts.
The amount of water vapour in the atmosphere, its humidity, is part of the water cycle water vapour condenses as clouds and
is later transferred to the earth’s surface as precipitation. Generally, equatorial and marine regions are wetter than colder and
continental areas.
Later on in this module on Weather Systems and Microclimates will look more closely at processes operating on a smaller
scale. It will be focused on systems which result in changing weather. It will also examine climate change and global warming.
Content
 Global heat budget and patterns of vertical and horizontal temperature variation.
 Global patterns of vertical and horizontal pressure variation and surface and upper wind circulation.
 Atmospheric humidity, condensation and types of precipitation.
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Global Heat Budget
The Atmosphere
The earth’s atmosphere is a thin (a 'mere' 1,000 ion at its maximum extent as compared to the earth’s radius of more than
6,000 km) shell of gases held around the earth by gravity. About 100 km above the surface, the atmosphere thins out towards
space. Most of the gases are contained in the lowest 10 km of the atmosphere. The atmosphere is thicker at the Equator than
at the poles because of increased uplift by heating. There are heat exchanges between the atmosphere and the earth’s surface
and between the atmosphere and empty space above it.
The atmosphere can be divided into four basic layers according to temperature and pressure characteristics (Figure 1.1):
1. The troposphere is the lowest 10-12 km closest to the
surface. This is where most weather phenomena
occur. Temperature decreases with increasing altitude
at an average rate of 6.50°C for every km (1,000 m) of
ascent. (This is the environmental lapse rate (ELR)
which is further examined in Module 2.) This is the
layer of greatest vertical mixing and heating. The
tropopause is the boundary between the troposphere
and stratosphere and the temperature remains
constant here.
2. The stratosphere lies between 12 and 50 km. The
protective ozone layer lies at this altitude. It absorbs
some of the heat from the sun and this is responsible
or the increase in temperature in the upper layers of
the stratosphere. Temperatures are constant between
12 and 20 km. The stratopause is the boundary
between the stratosphere and the mesosphere at
about 50 km above the surface.
3. The mesosphere or middle layer lies above the
stratosphere. Temperatures are constant for the first
10 km then decrease with increasing height. The
mesopause is the boundary between the mesosphere
and the thermosphere and is the coldest point in the
atmosphere.
4. The thermosphere or the warm layer is the fourth
layer. Temperatures are at first constant then increase
with increasing altitude into space. (This layer has less
than 0.00003 per cent of the atmosphere’s gases,
therefore, little heat is actually absorbed.)
Beyond this is the exosphere or outer layer Figure 1.1 The structure of the atmosphere
The atmosphere can also be structured on the basis of its Composition.
1. The heterosphere is the outermost part extending from about 80 km. Here, gases are distributed in distinct layers with the
heaviest, such as nitrogen and oxygen at the base and the highest such as helium and hydrogen at the outer margin.
2. Below is the homosphere, where, except for the ozone layer, gases are mixed. Nitrogen (78 percent), oxygen (20 percent)
and argon (0.9 per cent) are known as the ‘constant gases’ because their concentration has changed little throughout
earth’s history. Other gasses, the ‘variable gases’, are present in smaller and more variable quantities. These include carbon
dioxide, ozone, neon, helium, methane, krypton, hydrogen and water vapour. The variable gases play a more important
role than their concentrations suggest. Gases such as carbon dioxide, water vapour, methane and ozone are referred to as
‘greenhouse gases’ for their role in trapping some of the sun’s heat in the atmosphere. This is an important natural process
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which is being accelerated by industrial emissions and the destruction of vegetation. These human activities have altered
the earth processes with severe results.
Heat budget, transfers in the atmosphere
The sun emits energy in a form known as electromagnetic radiation and energy is transported in the form of waves. Waves
differ in length and frequency throughout their range or spectrum. Energy within the sun’s spectrum consists mainly of
infrared and visible light and the solar spectrum is referred to as short wave radiation. Earth’s outgoing spectrum is referred to
as long wave radiation.
Vast quantities of energy are produced by the
sun at a somewhat constant rate. The amount
of energy received by an area of the earth at
right angles to the sun’s rays is known as the
solar constant. It was previously thought to
vary little but is now known to change in the
long term with sun spot activity. It also
changes slightly with the varying distance
between the earth and the sun as the earth
has an elliptical orbit.
Heat from the sun enters the
earth/atmosphere system as short wave
radiation. The interception of short wave
solar energy by the earth is insolation. It is
retuned to space as long wave radiation and
there must be a balance between incoming Figure 1.2 Global Radiation Budget in the Climatic System after Peixoto
insolation and outgoing radiation.
The radiation balance
Figure 1.2 and the summary below show what happens to 100 units of solar radiation received at the outer atmosphere:
Units
 Absorbed by water vapour, ozone, aerosols 15
 Absorbed by clouds 4
 Absorbed by surface of the earth 50
 Scattered, reflected, incoming, outgoing and lost (albedo) 30
100
Total solar radiation absorbed is 100 — 30 or 70
Of the 50 units absorbed by the earth:
 Emitted as long wave radiation into the atmosphere 20
Transferred upwards:
 As sensible heat (conduction from surface to air and convection) 6
 As latent heat evaporation/condensation) 24
50
Of the 20 units emitted by long wave radiation:
 Absorbed in the atmosphere by water vapour, carbon dioxide 14
 Emitted directly to space 6
20
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Therefore, the atmosphere absorbs 20 units of solar radiation, insolation, and 44 units of energy from the earth’s surface, a
total of 64 units. This is balanced by the 70 units comprising emissions into space by carbon dioxide, water vapour, (38) clouds
(26) and there is a direct loss to the: astrosphere (6 units). The 70 units lost balance the 70 units of solar radiation absorbed.
There is balance in the heat budget. It is clear that the atmosphere is more absorbent to long than short wave radiation. It is
heated more by terrestrial radiation than by insolation: it is heated more from below:
(It should be noted that the 14 units that are absorbed by water vapour, carbon dioxide and other gases can reradiate the
energy to space or back to the surface (counter radiation), warming it. This is the naturally occurring greenhouse process).
So, for the earth as a whole, there is a net radiation balance. However, attitudinally, the values for incoming and outgoing
energy vary. This occurs because there are differences in three components of radiation balance – reflection or albedo,
insolation and long wave radiation.
Albedo
Albedo Figure 1.2 shows that 30 per cent of the energy of the sun is lost to reflection. A planetary albedo of 30 % means that
almost one-third of the energy is reflected to space and two-thirds absorbed. This is the global figure for the amount reflected
varies, a function of latitude, cloud cover, ice cover and seasonality. Values for albedo range from 0.0 to 1.0.
An albedo of 0.0 would be recorded for a surface that absorbs all the energy that strikes
it. An albedo of 1.0 implies that the surface reflects all the energy received. The whiter
and smoother the surface, the more the reflection and the greater the albedo. Table 1.1
shows the albedo of selected surfaces.
Clouds have a higher albedo than land or water but the actual amount depends on a
number of factors such as height/size, the number and size of water droplets and the
colour. The angle of the sun also has an impact on albedo values. The lower the angle, the
greater the reflection. This means that reflection would be greater in Polar Regions.
The albedo of the different surfaces constitute the planetary albedo. Tropical areas between 23½° north and south have a low
average albedo because of the extensive dark surfaces of oceans and forests. Polewards, the albedo increases in desert regions.
The largest albedo on the land surface, in the absence of snow is found in desert regions. Some deserts have an albedo that is
the equivalent of fresh snow. However, the value depends on the colour of the sand, albedo values reach their maximum at
the poles because of the low angle of the sun and ice cover.
Changes in vegetation, land use and snow cover are responsible for seasonal changes in the earth’s albedo. Cities have a low
albedo. They absorb heat.
Insolation
The second component of the radiation balance is
insolation. The amount of solar radiation
intercepted depends on the sun’s angle, day length,
the length of the sun’s path, the slope of the
ground and conditions in the atmosphere.
The angle of incidence of the sun is the angle
formed by the rays and a line perpendicular to the
surface. As the earth revolves around the sun the
angle changes because of the tilt of the earth from
the perpendicular.
At the equator, the angle of incidence remains
relatively high and Figure 1.3 shows that the
perpendicular rays there concentrate energy on a
small area. As the angle decreases towards the Figure 1.3 Angle of incidence
poles, the area influenced increases and the level
of insolation received decreases.
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At the local level, the slope of the ground influences the angle of the sun. Slopes that are slanted towards the sun have more
intense insolation that those that are either horizontal or tipped away from the sun. For example, there are contrasting
microclimates on north facing (ubac) Slopes where the sun strikes at low angles and south facing (adret) Slopes in the Alps.
Path of the sun
The path taken by the sun’s rays at the poles is longer than that at the equator (Figure 1.3). The longer the path the greater the
amount of energy lost. In addition, because the earth’s path around the sun takes the form of an ellipse and the sun is not at
the centre, there is one point in the year when the sun is closer to the earth (perihelion) and another when it is further away
(aphelion). This, however, does not play a very important part in temperature changes.
Atmospheric conditions
Clouds reflect insolation with levels ranging from 20 to 90 per cent depending on the type. Particulate matter in the
atmosphere also reflect and diffuse solar radiation.
Axial tilt and orientation of the earth
The axial tilt is of greatest importance in respect of the amount and distribution of energy on earth. The lengths of days and
nights vary with latitude and seasons because of the inclination of the axis. The rotation of the earth on its axis causes day and
night while the revolution around the sun causes seasons.
Figure 1.4 June Solstice Circle of Illumination Figure 1.5 December Solstice Circle of Illumination
As the earth revolves around the
sun, different parts are tilted towards the sun. The part tilted
towards the sun has summer and because the angle of incidence is
high, it receives the most direct rays of the sun. Figure 1.4 shows
condition in June when the sub-solar point is at roughly 23½°
north, that is, at the Tropic of Cancer, and the northern
hemisphere is tilted towards the sun. The circle of illumination is a
line dividing day and night on the earth. In June, it does not pass
through the north and south poles because the axis is tilted. At this
time the Arctic Circle receives 24 hours of light.
 The opposite Occurs during the December solstice when the
sub-solar point is at 23½° South (Figure 1.5). At this time the
Antarctic Circle receives 24 hours of light and the southern
Figure 1.6 Equinox and the Circle of Illumination
hemisphere receives long hours of daylight.
 There are two Equinoxes in March and September when the sun is overhead at the Equator and the circle of illumination
passes through the poles. Everywhere has 12 hours of daylight. An examination of Figures 1.4, 1.5 and 1.6 will show that
throughout the year, the Equator receives 12 hours of daylight and that areas that are close to the Equator have a more
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even distribution between light and darkness. Large quantities of solar radiation are received in the equatorial and
especially the tropical zones where there is little cloud cover over the deserts. The amount received declines pole-wards.
Long wave radiation
The final component of the radiation balance is
outgoing long wave radiation. Maximum values are
reached in the subtropical regions. This is explained
by the high temperatures of the deserts and the
absence of cloud cover. More frequent cloud cover
in the equatorial belt reduces outgoing solar
radiation. Values decrease towards the poles. In low
latitudes energy enters faster than it leaves and there
is an energy surplus. Towards the poles, there is an
energy deficit (Figure 1.7). But low latitudes are not
becoming hotter and the poles colder. The energy
balance is maintained because of meridional
transport or the transport of energy from low to high
latitudes. This is accomplished by the ocean and
atmosphere. Figure 1.7 Zonal mean radiation
Activity 1.1 Feedback
1. Describe the structure and 1. The atmosphere is a thin layer of gases held around the earth’s surface by gravity. It is
composition of the made of four layers of varying composition and temperature characteristics: the troposphere,
atmosphere. stratosphere, mesosphere and thermosphere. It is taken as 1, 000 km in extent, although
2. What is the difference most of its mass is in the lowest10 km. Pressure and temperature decrease rapidly in this
between sensible and latent lowest troposphere.
heat?
The atmosphere is composed mainly of nitrogen 78 per cent and oxygen 20 per cent, argon
3. Name the three factors that
0.9 per cent and very small amounts of carbon dioxide, neon, helium, methane, krypton and
are responsible for
hydrogen. It also has variable amounts of water vapour, ozone, dust and pollutants.
meridional differences in
the radiation balance. 2. Sensible heat is heat transferred between a warmer surface to the air above, initially by
4. Describe two features of conduction and later by convection. Latent heat is transferred in the process of
Figure1.7 which shows condensation.
mean radiation at the 3. The three factors responsible for meridional differences in the radiation balance are albedo,
earth’s surface. insolation and long wave radiation.
4. One feature of the diagram is the net radiation gain between 40° N and 35° S. latitude and
the largest deficit is at the poles.
Measurement of heat
Atmospheric temperature is measured by thermometers housed in louvred boxes (Stevenson Screens} raised above the
surface. The maximum thermometer is a mercury thermometer which expands and contracts with the rise of temperature and
pushes up the mendicus (index); an alcohol thermometer with a mendicus records the minimum temperature (it stays in place
even if the alcohol subsequently expands). These are usually read at least daily (and reset) to give the diurnal range 0f
temperature. These can be used to produce the average daily and monthly temperatures and the annual temperature range
(difference between monthly maximum and minimum). Temperatures are usually shown on line graphs over time.
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Factors influencing global atmospheric pressure and circulation
Atmospheric pressure refers to the force exerted on the earth’s surface by the ‘weight’ of the atmosphere. Gravity draws the
mass of the air to the earth’s surface, resulting in the main components of the atmosphere being concentrated in the lowest 12
km. Pressure decreases with increasing altitude. If the atmosphere were not in motion the pressure of all places at the same
altitude would be the same. However, the rate of vertical decrease in pressure is not the same in all places because of
differences in temperature and density of the air. The rate is faster in some areas and seasons than in others. Lines on a map
joining places with the same pressure are called isobars and the change in horizontal pressure is referred to as the pressure
gradient. The gradient results in a force that is directed from high to low pressure at right angles to the isobar. This is the
pressure gradient force and it results in winds which flow from polar (high pressure) to tropical (low pressure) regions. The
greater the difference in pressure, the greater the force and the stronger the wind. This is the primary force influencing the
formation of wind.
But pressure gradient force is not the only force that acts on moving air. If it were, then pressure would be equalised and
differences in pressure across zones would disappear. There are several other forces that act upon wind and objects in motion.
 The Coriolis force resulting from the earth’s rotation changes the direction of wind. Winds are deflected to the right of
their path in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere. The amount of deflection varies with the
speed of movement of the air and the latitude. The deflection is greater in strong winds. However, the force does not
influence wind speed. It is absent at the equator and increases towards the poles. So winds do not blow directly across the
pressure gradient. They follow a curved path.
 Geostrophic winds. As the air parcel begins to move it is deflected by the Coriolis force and the deflection increases as the
wind increases in speed. Eventually, the Coriolis force is equal to the pressure gradient force and the Winds blow parallel
to the isobars. The wind is then geostrophic.
 Close to the earth, friction caused by contact with the earth’s surface slows winds. It also reduces the effect of the Coriolis
force which no longer balances the pressure gradient force. This makes the pressure gradient force more dominant and
the wind blows across the isobars.
Earlier in this module it was shown that there is a surplus of energy at the equator and a deficit at the poles. Energy transfer is
effected by three cells that are explained in the Tricellular Atmospheric Circulation Model (Figure 1.8).
Figure 1.8 Simplified sketch of vertical and horizontal circulation and planetary winds – Tricellular model
There are three main cells or cycles of air motion in both hemispheres.
1. As the trade winds cross the warm tropical ocean they pick up latent heat and are forced to rise creating the equatorial low
pressure belt. This is the rising arm of the Hadley cell. These are the strong currents that provide the energy for the
atmospheric global circulation. The air cools as it rises, uplift ceases and the air moves away from the equator. At about
15
30° N, with cooling and increasing density, the air sinks back to the surface as the descending limb of the Hadley cell. At
the surface some of it is drawn back to the low pressure at the equator as the trade winds. A part is diverted polewards as
the wa.rm south westerlies.
2. When these warm south westerly winds meet Arctic air at about 60° N at the Polar Front, they rise to form the rising arm
of the Ferrel cell. An area of low pressure associated with mid-latitude depressions, another means by which heat is
transferred, is formed. The sinking air at around 30° – 40° latitude results in high pressure with winds blowing outwards
towards the poles as the Westerlies. Some air flows back towards the tropics.
3. The Polar cell is the lowest (less than 10 km) and weakest of the three cells. The air has now lost its heat and descends to
form another high-pressure area. Air flows out of the polar high pressure towards the Polar front as the variable polar
easterlies.
Winds in the upper troposphere
At ground level, the pressure gradient force drives winds from polar to tropical regions. The direction of movement is in the
opposite direction in the upper troposphere because the pressure gradient is reversed. At the poles, dense polar air is
concentrated at the ground and, therefore, the pressure aloft is low. High wind speeds develop at the polar front in the upper
air far from the frictional drag of the earth. These winds, the upper westerlies, blow from south to north but are deflected by
the Coriolis force and flow in a westerly direction. They follow an irregular path which changes with the seasons. In winter
they expand further southwards and are stronger.
The waves tend to meander and the meanders in the upper westerlies
are known as Rossby waves. They are common in certain areas. It is
believed that the waves are produced when winds encounter barriers,
are forced to rise and descend under the force of gravity. They are
present where there are substantial mountain barriers, such as the
Rockies and the Plateau of Tibet. Figure 1.9 shows the location of
the wave over North America and the Atlantic. As the wave
develops, cold polar air migrates southwards and is surrounded by
warmer tropical air. At the same time, warm tropical air moves
northwards and is surrounded by cold polar air.
The diagram shows that air flows faster on the poleward than on the
equatorial curve. These changes in speed have a profound effect on
the weather patterns on the ground for they are responsible for highs
and lows in mid-latitudes. When, as the diagram shows, upper air
accelerates over the Atlantic Ocean, it pulls up air from the lower
atmosphere and creates the low pressure which attracts polar and Figure 1.9 Rossby Wave
tropical air masses. The result is cooling, condensation and cloudy
weather. When air slows down there is a piling up of air behind from the faster moving air. The excess air sinks to the ground
creating high pressure and anticyclonic weather conditions.
Embedded in the Rossby waves are areas of stronger flow (like currents in water) referred to as jet streams. These winds may
be as high as 200 km/hr. and help in the transfer of energy around the globe. There are five jet streams, three of which have
greater importance than the other two. The polar jet stream (PJS) develops between the Ferrel and Polar cells around 40 – 60°
north and south. They are associated with the development of depressions and anticyclones. The subtropical jet stream (SJS)
develops between the Hadley and Ferrel cells. It meanders less and moves more slowly. The easterly equatorial jet stream
develops in equatorial areas and is seasonal.
Sometimes anticyclones divert the jet stream in their easterly progress to different routes. The jet stream may be diverted
North or south of the anticyclone. Such anticyclones that interrupt the normal circulation are known as blocking anticyclones or
blocking highs.
16
Measurement of atmospheric pressure and winds
Atmospheric pressure is measured by a barometer. It is expressed in millibars which is the basic unit of synoptic charts of
weather maps (isobars) (Module 2). Wind speed is measured by an anemometer and wind direction by a wind vane. Wind
direction can be shown on a wind rose (a circular bar graph corresponding to the cardinal points).
Activity 1.2
Figure 1.10 Atmospheric circulation in the northern hemisphere Feedback

1. The winds labelled W are the 1. c
a. jet stream b. westerlies 2. a
c. north-east trades d. south-east trades 3. d
4. a
2. The winds labelled SJS in the mid-latitudes are the
5. b
a. sub-polar jet stream b. Rossby waves
6. d
c. subtropical jet stream d. north-east trades
3. The North Pole is associated with high pressure because it is an area of
a. convergence b. divergence
c. frontal systems d. cold temperatures
Study the map below and answer questions 4-6.
Figure 1.11
4. The area labelled P is
a. high pressure b. low pressure
c. convergence d. depression
5. The winds labelled Q are?
a. north-east trades b. south-east trades
c. westerlies d. westerlies
6. The winds R are the
a. north-east trades b. south-east trades
c. easterlies d. westerlies
17
Moisture in the Atmosphere
Moisture in the atmosphere is the third major atmospheric condition to be examined. Human beings and plants require water
for their survival. After 24 hours without water, life begins to deteriorate. Water is also vital for many other domestic,
agricultural and industrial activities.
Water exists as a solid, liquid and gas. Water freezes to ice or evaporates to steam and ice melts. These are phase changes. A
change of phase either requires or releases energy. Melting and evaporation require energy. Freezing and condensing release
energy. The energy required for a material to change its phase is called latent heat. Latent heat of fusion refers to the change
from liquid to solid. The change from liquid to gas is the latent heat of vaporization.
The sun’s energy is used in the evaporation of water from the earth’s surface. This energy is released in condensation and the
latent heat released is the major source of power that drives weather systems such as thunderstorms and hurricanes.
The amount of water vapour held by a parcel of air depends on the air temperature. As the temperature increases so does the
capacity of the air to hold water. When the air can hold no more water it is said to be saturated. If at 25°C a parcel of air is
saturated and the temperature is then increased to 30 °C without an increase in the water vapour, the air will no longer be
saturated. If the temperature is decreased the water vapour will condense and the temperature at which this occurs is the dew
point.
The amount of water vapour in the air is its absolute humidity and is expressed in grams/cubic metre. The amount of water
vapour in the air relative to amount which it can hold at that temperature is called the relative humidity. It is expressed as a
percentage.
Condensation
For condensation to occur there must be minute particles in the air known as hygroscopic nuclei, that is, particles capable of
attracting moisture. These may take the form of dust, smoke, pollen and sea salt. The form of condensation depends on
whether cooling results from radiation, advection or convection.
Fogs are caused by condensation at or near the earth’s surface. On cold, clear nights in mid-latitudes, the earth continues to
radiate heat which cannot be replaced by the sun. The temperature falls and the air at ground level is cooled by conduction
through contact with the ground surface. Only the lower surface is cooled and a temperature inversion is created. If the air
cools below its dew point condensation will occur. Such radiation fogs are common in valleys.
Dew is formed by condensation on a surface that is reflecting heat.
Advection fogs. These occur when warm, humid air from a different source moves over cooler land or water surfaces. The warm
air loses heat to the warmer surface below and condensation takes place. These fogs are common in coastal waters where
warm air from the sea flows over the colder land.
Clouds, rain, hail and snow are formed by different cooling processes. They form as a result of mechanical uplift and the precise
mechanism will be outlined in Module 2. Uplift results from convection resulting from three mechanisms:
 orographic – air forced to rise over a mountain
 convective – hot air rising and cooling
 cyclonic – warm air forced to rise over cold air at a front.
In each case, the air rises, expands and consumes energy. The air is cooled below its dew point and releases condensation as
clouds. The clouds form from minute water droplets and ice crystals suspended in the atmosphere. With continuing uplift,
precipitation (that is, hail, snow and rain) may result. Hail is formed when super-cooled water droplets freeze on contact with
condensation nuclei. They form in thunderstorm clouds with strong updrafts, a high water content and great vertical extent.
Sometimes the pellets are lifted in the cold air and lowered. As a result, hail stones are made up of concentric layers of ice.
Snow is formed when water vapour is frozen directly without first passing through a liquid stage (sublimation). Snow will
reach the ground if the cloud and the air beneath it have below freezing temperatures.
18
Raindrop formation
There are two processes which have been suggested to account for raindrop formation:
1. Ice-crystal (Bergeron) process. Bergeron suggested that raindrop formation depends on ice crystal growth high in cold
clouds, the coexistence of water vapour, liquid cloud droplets and ice crystals. He saw freezing nuclei as important to
initiate the freezing process. The ice crystals grow until they begin to fall and grow by accretion. As they approach the
surface they may fall as ice forms or rain if temperatures are warm enough. .
2. Collision-coalescence process. This involves precipitation from warm clouds. It is suggested that in this case, raindrops
grow by collision and coalescence within clouds. Some droplets must be larger than others for this process to initiate
precipitation. These larger droplets start to fall and collide and may coalesce with smaller, slower droplets. Clouds of large
vertical extent sometimes have both up and down draughts allowing repeated collisions.
Both processes are now thought to operate in specific environments. In low latitudes precipitation is likely to form by the
collision-coalescence process. The ice crystal mechanism is more likely to provide an explanation for raindrop formation in
temperate latitudes.
Measurement of humidity and precipitation
The atmospheric humidity, in particular relative humidity, is measured by a hygrometer or Wet and dry bulb thermometers.
This responds to the loss of temperature consumed by evaporation of water from the Wet bulb. Hygrometric tables are then
used to calculate the humidity for air at that temperature (dry bulb). If both thermometers have the same reading the air is
saturated (100 per cent).
Rainfall is measured by a rain gauge which collects the falling rain. It is converted to mm per unit area.

1. Distinguish between absolute humidity and 1. Absolute humidity is the actual amount of water vapour in a parcel of air and is
relative humidity. expressed in grams/cubic metre. The amount of water vapour in the air relative to the
amount which it can hold at that temperature is called the relative humidity. This is
2. Describe the process of condensation and expressed as a percentage.
explain why it may occur at ground level.
2. Condensation is the process by which moisture changes from a gas into a liquid. It
3. Use an atlas to find a world map showing total may occur near ground level when air close to the surface is cooled below its dew
annual rainfall amounts, and answer the point by advection or conduction.
following questions.
a. Name two areas which receive more than 3. a. Two areas could be Equatorial Brazil and South East Asia. These areas are close
2,000 mm annually. Explain one reason to warm oceans and so have high absolute humidity. In addition, these are hot areas
for these high totals. with daily convectional showers.
b. Why are precipitation totals lower in the b. The capacity for air to hold water increases with temperature. Since the
Arctic Circle than in the tropics? atmosphere in the tropics can hold more water, precipitation is likely to be greater.
Key points
 The earth’s atmosphere is composed of gases.
 The incoming heat from the sun is scattered and filtered by the atmosphere.
 The earth’s surface receives and transmits heat.
 Global atmospheric pressure and winds vary with season and surface both horizontally and vertically.
 Atmospheric moisture is very important and takes many forms.
Conclusion
All life on planet Earth is dependent on the conditions in the atmosphere. The seasonal variations and nature of the earth’s
surface result in the change from incoming short wave solar radiation to outgoing long wave radiation from the earth’s surface.
The variation in temperature, pressure and moisture results in variation in the atmospheric conditions around the globe.
Module 2 will look more closely at the effects of these global processes on weather systems.
19
End Test End Test Feedback
1. Identify three ways in which long wave radiation 1. The earth‘s surface heats the atmosphere by radiation, conduction and
from the earth's surface heats the air. convection.
2. Two features of the upper air circulation are:
2. Describe two features of the world pattern of wind
Rossby Waves. In the upper troposphere winds take an undulating route 'm
circulation in the upper atmosphere.
the westerly wind belt around the earth. High speed winds develop at the
polar front and meander in a westerly direction. These are called Rossby
3. With the aid of diagrams explain how the
waves. At this position, there is mixing of cold and warm air and once set in
horizontal movement of air is affected by
motion by the Coriolis force, long waves form along the boundary between
a) Coriolis force
the colder and warmer air.
b) Friction
Polar Front Jet Stream The velocity within the Rossby waves is not uniform.
Within the waves there are narrow bands of high velocity air that form along
the Polar front and along the Hadley cell in the subtropics in both
hemispheres. They are also meandering and move from west to east. These
are known as the jet streams and can exceed 230 km/hr. The Polar front jet
Stream is located along the Polar front at altitudes between the Ferrel and
Polar cells.
3. a. The Coriolis force causes moving air to be deflected from the path of its
motion. This is caused by the rotation of the earth. It is strongest towards the
poles and very weak at the equator. Winds are deflected to the right in the
northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere
b. Friction. The drag exerted by the earth’s surface is known as friction.

Friction slows down the movement of air. It modifies the effect of the Coriolis
force and the pressure gradient.
20
2. WEATHER SYSTEMS, CLIMATIC CHANGE, MICROCLIMATE
Introduction
This module will examine atmospheric processes on a medium and small scale. Parcels of air rising through the environment
have relationships with the surrounding air that cause them to continue to rise or sink beyond the initial triggers discussed in
Module 1. The presence of continents and oceans strongly influences weather phenomena at a smaller scale than the planetary
systems previously discussed. At an even smaller scale, human activities, such as the creation of large settlements and
cultivated lands, have influenced atmospheric conditions in specific areas (microclimates). Similarly, mountains disrupt the
natural global systems over small areas.
Human activity has significantly influenced the earth’s atmospheric - conditions. It is accelerating natural climate change by
varying the composition of the air. Carbon pollution is resulting in global warming with potentially disastrous consequences
such as rising sea level and unpredictable weather. The results of accelerated global warming are becoming more and more
apparent.
Content
 Lapse rates and atmospheric stability/instability. I Synoptic charts.
 High and low pressure weather systems.
 Climatic change.
 Microclimates — urban, rural and mountains.
 Lapse Rates and Atmospheric Stability/Instability
In Module l there was a discussion of cooling processes which resulted in the formation of fogs and dew. Mention was made
of the fact that precipitation - rain, snow, and hail – resulted from a different form of cooling process that is adiabatic cooling.
The uplift of a parcel of air (thermal) - may be initiated by convection, relief or cyclonic triggers (Module 1). Atmospheric
pressure falls with height and the parcel expands losing heat. This is adiabatic cooling. As the parcel of air sinks through the
atmosphere it is compressed and warms adiabatically. These are changes in temperature in the parcel of air that do not involve
heat exchange with the atmosphere. There are two different adiabatic lapse rates depending on the relative humidity of the
rising parcel of air.
1. Before the rising parcel of air reaches dew point, it cools at a rate of 10 °C for every 1,000 m of ascent. This is the dry
adiabatic lapse rate (DALR).
2. Eventually, the rising parcel reaches dew point, condensation occurs, and energy is released. Because of this, the rate of
cooling decreases to about 5 °C with every 1, 000 m of ascent. This is the saturated adiabatic lapse rate (SALR). This rate
is actually variable ranging from 3 – 6 °C per l, 000 m depending on the absolute humidity of the parcel of air.
These changes occur in moving and not still air that is affected by the environmental lapse rate.
The relationship between the adiabatic lapse rates of a rising parcel of air and the environmental lapse rate of the surrounding
stationary column of air determines whether the parcel will continue to rise (unstable) after its initial trigger or sink back to
earth (stable). If the rising parcel cools at a faster rate than the surrounding air it will be colder and will be unable to rise
further and will sink back to the ground. This atmospheric stability is associated with anticyclonic weather. If the parcel cools
at a slower rate, it will be warmer than the surrounding air and continue to rise. If dew point is reached there may be clouds
and thunderstorms.
These relationships can be considered numerically: if a rising unsaturated parcel of air starts out at ground level at 15 °C and
cools at the DALR of 10°C/1,000 m then at 1,000 m it would have a temperature of 15 minus 10 = 5°C. If at the same time,
the surrounding stationary air is cooling at the average ELR of 6.5°C/ 1,000 m, then at 1,000 m the environment would have a
temperature of 15 minus 6.5 = 8.5 °C. The rising parcel of air will therefore be cooler than its environment and tend to sink
back to earth. This is a stable condition. Similar calculations can be made for saturated air, however, these relationships are
shown more clearly on temperature-height graphs or tephigrams.
21
In the cases discussed so far, the air was either saturated or unsaturated. Sometimes the lapse rate of a parcel of air lies
between the DALR and the SALR. The air is said to be conditionally stable or unstable depending on its moisture content. If
it is dry, it is conditionally stable. If it is moist or close to saturation, it is conditionally unstable. This condition is caused by
forced ascent at, for example, mountain barriers.
Figures 2.1a and 2. lb show conditions of absolute stability and absolute instability between a rising parcel of air and its
environment.
In Figure 2.1a, at 1,000 m the temperature of the parcel of air P is 4°C while the environment is 6 °C. This is a stable
condition. In Figure 2.1b (overleaf) at 1,000 m the temperature of the rising parcel of air X is 12°C while the temperature of
the environment is 7 °C. The parcel of air is warmer than its environment even before it condenses, it is therefore unstable.
Figure 2.1 Absolute Humidity
22
Activity 2 1 Feedback
1. Define lapse rate and state two 1. The term lapse rate is used to describe changes in air temperature with height above sea level.
conditions which influence lapse rates. This could be cooling or warming according to the movement of the air (ascending or
descending). A second condition is its humidity; saturated air cools more slowly than dry air.
2. Distinguish between environmental
and adiabatic lapse rates. 2. Environmental lapse rates refer to the actual decrease in temperature with altitude in a column
of stationary air. This loss is a result of decreased density of the air. Adiabatic lapse rates are
3. Explain the differences between stable
the changes of temperature in a rising/sinking parcel of air as a result of
and unstable atmospheric conditions.
expansion/compression of the air. There is no exchange of heat with its environment.
(Diagrams may be used.)
3. Stable atmospheric conditions occur when a rising parcel of air is always cooler than its
environment. The ELR is lower than the DALR and SALR. The rising parcel of air is likely to
sink back to the surface and not produce precipitation. In contrast, unstable conditions occur
when a rising parcel of air is warmer than its environment. When the ELR is smaller than the
SALR, the atmosphere is absolutely unstable. The parcel of air will be warmer than its
environment and will continue to rise even after the initial trigger ceases. These conditions are
likely to produce heavy rainfall and towering clouds.
Air Masses and Weather Systems.

A closer examination of the global circulation would show distinct air masses and Weather systems over particular areas.
Air masses
An air mass can be defined as a large body of air which has uniform temperature and moisture characteristics over an
extensive area. They are large, horizontal and extend many kilometres into the atmosphere. Air masses form when air remains
stationary for days and assumes the characteristics of the surface (source region). Air that is slowly descending or diverging can
assume these characteristics. Converging and rising air cannot. The source region must have almost homogeneous
characteristics such as a body of Water, large forest, open grassland or desert. In the northern hemisphere, for example, they
form over the North Atlantic Ocean and over the continents.
The path followed by the air mass as it moves is known as the trajectory. V It travels as a single unit and most of the time, it
carries its features to other areas, although it may be slightly modified by the conditions over which it moves. The air mass
could be warmed or cooled from below, conditions that could affect its stability. Its moisture content could also be affected by
the characteristics of the area over which it passes. Air masses sometimes converge as at the mid-latitude frontal zones or at
the inter-tropical convergence zone (Module 1). The meeting of some air masses creates unique weather conditions which are
associated with the systems thus formed — frontal depressions and inter-tropical convergence zone (ITCZ) respectively.
Other weather systems, such as hurricanes, develop under specific atmospheric conditions.
Air masses are classified by combining their temperature and source area:
 Latitudinal position: Equatorial (E), Tropical (T), Polar (P), Arctic (A)/Antarctic (AA)
 Type of surface: Maritime (m), and continental (c).
There are six major air masses (after Strahler 1987):
Symbol Temp °C Specific humidity g/kg Description
Em 27 19.0 warm, very moist
Tm 24 17.0 warm, moist
Tb 24 11.0 warm, dry
Pm 4 4.4 cool, moist
Pc -11 1.4 cold, dry
Ac -46 0.1 very cold, very dry
(Note: American convention places the capital letter second.)
In the Caribbean the main active air masses are the equatorial (Em) and tropical maritime (Tm) masses. These warm wet
masses converge along the inter-tropical convergence zone (ITCZ), the area of low pressure around the equator associated
23
with the convergence of trade winds. They produce copious rainfall and intense cloud cover. The movement of Tm air masses
can assist in the development of hurricanes. In winter, blasts of cold air and rainfall may affect the northern Caribbean as Pc
air moves from central North America into the Gulf of Mexico forming cold fronts with the Tm masses of the Caribbean Sea.
In temperate latitudes the movement of air masses is responsible for the polar front zone of temperate depressions where Tm
air masses push northwards into the southwards flow of Pm air masses. The seasonal reversal of continental air mass
characteristics results in the extreme monsoonal weather of Asia. The weather systems formed by moving air masses will be
considered below.
1. Outline the meaning of air mass. 1. An air mass is a large body of air which has uniform temperature and moisture characteristics
over an extensive area. They develop over continental or marine surfaces at different latitudes.
2. Identify two different types of air
They have the characteristics of their source area.
masses which affect the Caribbean.
2. The Caribbean is affected by the warm moist equatorial masses. They bring with them high
temperatures and copious rainfall to areas of the southern Caribbean.
The northern Caribbean is affected by cold polar air masses (Pc) in winter which bring lowered
temperature and moderate rainfall.
Fronts
When air masses meet they do not easily mix. There is a transition zone between the two where some mixing takes place and
this is called a front. They extend both horizontally and vertically. A cold front is that part of the system along which cold air
is advancing. The colder, denser air mass stays on the surface and undercuts the warmer air. They move slower at ground level
than higher in the atmosphere and so are sloped. In addition they move relatively fast, and as a result the warm air is displaced
very quickly. This causes turbulence. Heavy rains, sometimes with hail and thunder, may be experienced.
A warm front is the transition zone where a warm air mass is replacing a cold air mass. The lighter warm air rises over the
colder in a gentler slope than in a cold front, generating light to moderate rain. The polar front is intermittent around the globe
and marks the transition zone between cold polar and warm tropical air masses.
In time, the faster-moving cold front overtakes the warm and lifts it off the ground. This forms an occluded front.
Depressions
Mid-latitude
The polar front theory was developed soon after the First World War to explain the development of mid-latitude depressions.
To the north of the polar front, in the North Atlantic Ocean, cold air blows south with a curve to the west parallel to the
front. To the south, warm air blows north and curves eastwards, parallel to the front. A kink forms in the polar front because
of a curve in the jet stream which pulls up air from the surface creating a low pressure area (Module 1). Winds begin to flow
around the low pressure in an anticlockwise direction, and a frontal wave is formed. This is the embryo stage.
To the east, the winds blow northwards producing a warm front. To the west, the flow is southwards producing a cold front.
The system is then steered eastwards by the jet stream. As the wave develops, the warm front curves south and east and the
cold front curves south and west. There may be some precipitation ahead of the warm front and strong thunderstorms along
the cold. In between there is a wedge of warm tropical air. As the wave moves eastwards the pressure decreases and the winds
blow more strongly. Because the cold front moves faster than the warm, it pushes through the warm sector restricting it to a
narrower and narrower area. At this time the depression is at its greatest extent and rain covers a wide area (mature stage).
Eventually, the cold catches up with the warm front and an occlusion is formed. With cold air all around there is no warm air
to keep the pressure low. All the energy is used up, the pressure begins to rise, and the system withers (decays). Table 2.1
outlines the changes in weather conditions as a depression approaches and passes over the British Isles.
24
Table 2.1 Weather changes with the passage of a mid-latitude depression
Weather Cold sector Cold front Warm sector Warm Front Approach of
Elements warm front
Cloud and Broken cumulus Towering Low stratus, Nimbostratus, Alto stratus, light
precipitation cumulonimbus occasional drizzle occasional rainfall drizzle
Temperature 4°C 4°C 12°C 6°C 6°C
Winds North-west North-west West South-west South-west
Anticyclones
This is a high pressure system with closed circulation clockwise in the north hemisphere (anticlockwise southern hemisphere).
Anticyclones develop in two main areas. In the middle latitude, air converges high in the atmosphere and then descends. As it
descends it is compressed, warms, is capable of holding more water vapour, and tends to be dry.
The pressure gradient is low and, therefore, winds are light. Anticyclones are generally associated with stable weather
conditions - clear, sunny skies. However, there are seasonal differences — some snow in winter and temperature inversions
and thunderstorms in summer. Anticyclones may lead to days of settled weather sometimes slowing down depressions or
forcing them around the high pressure system. These are known as blocking highs.
In the subtropics, anticyclonic belts are associated with the major deserts.
Hurricanes (tropical cyclones/typhoons/willy-willies)
These are intense tropical low pressure systems which begin in tropical regions. Certain conditions favour the development of
these systems:
 A pre-existing disturbance over open waters.
 A wide coverage of ocean temperatures of about 26.5 °C.
 Little or no change in wind velocity in the upper atmosphere.
 A sufficiently rapid cooling of the atmosphere with altitude to produce unstable conditions.
 A minimum distance of 500 km from the equator where the Coriolis force is established.
It is believed that tropical cyclones or hurricanes in the North Atlantic Ocean begin over west and central North Africa.
Convergence of currents creates clusters of thunderstorms, above which there is a cold air mass and an unstable atmosphere
results. This is a tropical wave which moves towards the west (Figure 2.2 Stage 1). Updrafts lift air and moisture and create
towering clouds. If the moving mass maintains its identity for more than 24 hours a tropical disturbance is formed. This is the
first stage in the formation of a hurricane. As the moist air moves upwards, condensation occurs and latent heat is released.
The heated air expands and diverges at upper levels
(Figure 2.2 Stage 2) and the pressure at the surface is
reduced. As a result, more air is absorbed into the
system and the rising motion intensifies. More latent
heat is released by condensation and the system grows
and becomes a tropical depression with a closed
circulation. As the air moves, the Coriolis Effect causes
it to spin in an anticlockwise direction (Figure 2.2 Stage
3). When the wind speed reaches 39 mph (34 knots) a
tropical storm is formed and it is given a name.
When winds exceed 73 mph (64 knots) a hurricane is
formed around an eye wall, the most powerful area of
the storm. The winds spiral in tighter and tighter bands
as they approach the centre of the storm and reach
enormous speeds. When they can go no further they
spin upward to form the eye wall clouds. High
pressure air above pushes most of the rising air away Figure 2.2 Development of a hurricane
25
from the centre. However, some air drops back down the middle and it is this descending air that creates the calm, cloud-free
eye of the hurricane (Figure 2.2 Stage 4).
Since the energy that is released from condensation fuels hurricanes, they weaken when they move over land areas where the
supply of moisture is cut off. Hurricanes can cover extremely large areas. Hurricane Katrina in 2004, an extremely large
hurricane, extended about 320 km outward from the eye. They release abundant energy and the potential for damage especially
that caused by categories 3, 4 and 5, the major hurricanes (Table 2.2), is considerable.
Table 2.2 The Saffir-Simpson Scale
Figure 2.3 shows the path taken by tropical cyclones, a path which takes them through the Caribbean. About 12% begin in the
North Atlantic and virtually none in the South Atlantic Ocean. They are frequent in the months from august to September
with the peak in September. Their paths are erratic and this makes it difficult to predict where they will make their landfall.
Hurricanes Typhoons
Hurricanes Cyclones
12% 30%
12% 12%
Cyclones Cyclones
12% 7% 12%
Hurricane Damage
The strong winds of the hurricane push the waters of the ocean into shallow coastal areas. This creates storm surges whose
height depends on the - strength of the winds, the shape of the coastline and the tidal cycle. A rise in sea level is also caused by
the low pressure in the eye, but this is weaker and comes after the surge caused by the wind. Storm surges may prevent the
water brought by thunderstorms from draining off the land and result in coastal flooding. Damage can also be caused by the
retreating storm surge.
The high winds and heavy rainfall which accompany hurricanes also cause damage and destruction. Three main factors
influence the impact of the hurricane:
 the intensity of the winds.
 the duration of the storm
 the population density and intensity of development.
26
Buildings may collapse under the force of the winds, crops may be destroyed by rain and wind. However, the greatest
casualties are caused by storm surges.
Hurricane Nargis
In 2008, hurricane Nargis swept over Myanmar with wind speeds approaching 200 km/h. It moved ashore at peak intensity
and passed over the capital city of Yangon (Rangoon) with a population of between 4 and 5 million. The hurricane produced a
storm surge of about 3 m. A minimum of 138,000 persons perished, but this is believed to underestimate the total number of
lives lost. The damage was estimated to be in the region of US$10 billion. The force of the storm could have been lessened
had it not been for the destruction of the diverse coastal mangrove communities of the Irrawaddi delta. Mangrove forests had
been removed for the cultivation of rice, the collection of fuel, tourist facilities and for shrimp aquaculture. These
developments left coastal areas exposed to high-impact winds and waves.
Activity 2.3
Figure 2.4 shows a synoptic chart for the Caribbean. Study the
diagram and answer the following questions:
1. The weather system at A is a/an
a. hurricane c. tropical wave
b. anticyclone d. tropical storm
2. Weather system B is a
3. The weather experienced at Station C is

Feedback
1. b
2. d
3. c
Figure 2.4
Microclimates
Microclimate refers to atmospheric conditions close to a very small area of the earth’s surface (originally over a short period of
time, but urban climate is thought to be a permanent modification of the global patters and over increasing areas). Towns,
forest, gardens and mountains all have their own microclimate. Conditions vary because:
 albedo and heat conductivity of the surface results in changes in temperatures
 permeability of the surface controls the balance between infiltration and run-off
 amount and nature of vegetation influence both heat and water absorption and release.
However, microclimates do not change the basic planetary climatic conditions. Cities in temperate areas would not become
tropical. But the temperatures in that locality would be altered.
Urban microclimates
Urban areas with large areas of concrete and asphalt create highly absorbent heat surfaces and low albedo. They are
impermeable; therefore, there is high rapid run-off, which could result in local flooding.
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 Temperature. The urban heat island has been well identified over many large cities, such as London and Washington.
Night temperatures are high.
 Sunlight is reduced by the presence of high-rise buildings.
 Wind speeds are reduced by rough irregular skyline but may have canyons or tunnels between high buildings which
create winds strong enough to make walking difficult and cause tall buildings to sway.
 Relative humidity is lower because of warmer air and less vegetation.
 Clouds are thicker and there are more frequent convection showers because of the large number of condensation
nuclei in the form of pollutants and dust.
 Precipitation is higher than in rural areas because of strong thermals. Fogs and smog tend to persist.
Rural microclimates
The nature of rural microclimates depends on the type of vegetation and the cover it produces. The albedo can vary from 85
per cent on a snow - covered surface to 10 per Cent on dark bare soil; with 25 per cent over grasslands and some forests. A
forested area will generally have lower temperatures than an urban area. It will have a higher relative humidity as a result of
transpiration, although there may be less precipitation in temperate forest than adjacent urban areas as a result of less
Convection (tropical forest would have a higher rainfall). Wind speeds may be lower than urban areas as trees reduce speeds at
ground level.
Mountain microclimates
Although they occur on a larger scale than true microclimates the development of mountain and Valley winds may produce
varying local conditions in particular parts of a mountain range. Temperatures in mountain ranges decrease at the
environmental lapse rate of 6.5°C for every 1,000m of ascent. The temperature in the Blue Mountains of Jamaica, which are
over 2,000m above sea level, would be on average, 13 °C lower than Kingston at sea level. Generally the decrease in
temperature with altitude mimics the latitudinal decrease in temperatures.
In specific situations, north-facing slopes (adret) in temperate areas can have shorter, warmer winters than south-facing (ubac)
slopes.
Mountains also significantly affect the amount of precipitation received. While mountains can force air to rise and be a trigger
for condensation and precipitation, they also create areas of descending warming air on the leeward side (rain shadow). This
effect is seen in the distribution of rainfall on most mountainous Caribbean islands. Port Antonio in Jamaica, on the windward
side (north-east facing the prevailing NE Trades) of the Blue Mountains, receives almost twice as much rainfall as Kingston in
the rain shadow.
Mountains can create local winds referred to as mountain and valley winds. During the day, when the valley is heated, winds
may blow up the Valley and its sides (anabatic flow); while at night as the valley loses heat the air drains down and along the
valley floor (katabatic wind). Some mountains are affected by the passage of temperate depressions. For example, the Alps and
the Rockies develop warm descending winds on their leeward sides as a result of adiabatic warming. This results in the warm
winds of the Alps and the Chinook of the Prairies.
Other local winds
In coastal areas diurnal temperature differences occur as water and land heat at different rates. During the day the land is
hotter and winds are drawn in from the cooler sea. This cools the coastal area. But at night when the sea is relatively hot winds
blow off the land. These are referred to as land and sea breezes.
1. Define the term microclimate. 1. A microclimate is atmospheric conditions close to a very small area of the earth’s surface over
a short period of time. Mountains, towns, ecosystems all have their own microclimate
2. Explain three significant differences
conditions.
between urban and rural
microclimates. 2. Urban microclimates are usually 3-4 °C hotter than adjacent rural areas. Urban areas are
usually foggier and cloudier and may have more rainfall than rural areas. Urban areas have
overall higher wind speeds.
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Weather systems
Weather systems are often illustrated using synoptic charts (weather maps). A synoptic chart shows three types of data:
 Isobars lines — joining areas of equal atmospheric pressure as interpolated from known weather stations.
 Weather stations - small circles with the weather data in symbols, around and in them.
 Symbols — for specific weather systems.
Reading and interpreting synoptic charts Isobars
 Identify areas of high or low pressure (lines may be drawn at 4/6/8 my intervals).
 Look at the pressure gradients [closeness of isobars) and wind 5 direction (weather stations).
Weather stations
Weather stations are represented by a circle with information in and around them. The symbols for particular weather systems
will be shown on the map.
Climate Change
There are many natural factors that contribute to climate change. However, scientists believe that human activities are the
main causes of the rapid rate at which changes in the Climate have been occurring.
Natural causes
Long term
Changes in solar output
The amount of solar energy received is not constant and is thought to vary in response to the number of sun spots or
magnetic storms seen as darker (cooler) areas on the sun’s surface. When the sun spot number is high, the value of the solar
constant increases.
Variations in the Earths orbital characteristics
These variations are believed to have several causes. The Earth’s orbit changes from near circular to markedly elliptical and
this influences the amount of radiation received. The greater the eccentricity, that is, the more elliptical (Module 1), the greater
the amount of solar radiation received at the top of the atmosphere between perihelion and aphelion. Variations in the
distribution of solar radiation received are also caused by fluctuation in the angle of inclination (the smaller the tilt, the smaller
the variation between summer and winter seasons in mid- and high latitudes) and the timing of the equinoxes and solstices.
Variations in atmospheric composition
Variations in the atmospheric composition including changes in greenhouse gases and aerosol content are associated with
climate change. Changes in carbon dioxide content have been linked to changes in temperature. The oceans are great stores of
carbon dioxide which is released when temperatures are high and which diffuses into the ocean when the temperatures are
low. When the amount of solar radiation received increases, carbon dioxide is released. Therefore, this amplifies global
warming.
Mountain building, continental drift.
North-south trending mountain ranges and changes in the disposition of land and sea influence the climate system.
Short- term changes
El Nino/Southern Oscillation
The El Nino/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) describes the cycle of El Nino , neutral, La Nina pattern in the Pacific Ocean and
is one of the main sources of year-to-year variation in weather and climate. El Nino episodes are defined as sustained warming
of the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean. In normal conditions, the Pacific Ocean develops, a pressure oscillation
between the eastern (Tahiti high) and western (Darwin, Australia low) sections in response to water temperatures. Low
atmospheric pressure tends to occur over warm water and high pressure occurs over cold water, in part because deep
convection over the warm water acts to transport air.
Conversely, La Nina episodes are associated with stronger Pacific trade winds and warmer sea temperatures and enhanced
rainfall over much of Australia. The waters in the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean become cooler during this time.
29
La Nina events create conditions that are more favourable for the development of hurricanes in the Caribbean as there is little
wind shear.
Volcanic eruptions
Eruptions send dust and gases into the stratosphere where they remain for long periods and spread to cover the globe. In
particular, Sulphur dioxide is converted to sulphuric acid which is highly reflective and together with aerosols, scatter incoming
solar radiation.
Human influence
The term greenhouse gases has become associated with the release of carbon dioxide and other atmospheric pollutants as a
result of human activity. These are gases that trap heat in the atmosphere. Machines and the internal combustion engine
(Which have replaced manual labour and walking), the burning of coal, oil and natural gas (fossil fuels) for energy, have
accelerated the release of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Methane is released by agricultural pastoral activity to meet the
demand for beef and methane is an even more efficient greenhouse gas. In addition, human activity has cleared natural
vegetation which absorbs carbon dioxide and releases oxygen. The result is an increasing amount of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere. One measure to reduce carbon dioxide emissions is to trap the very solar energy and use it for heating, electricity
and transportation. This is clean and renewable energy.
Global warming
Over the last 20 years there has been concern with the increasing average global temperature. Even though the increase may
appear small it represents vast changes in the atmospheric conditions and habitat of the living organisms which depend on
them. Since 1800, average global temperature has increased about 0.8°C and it has been estimated that by the year 2100 there
will be an additional rise of between 1.4° and 5.8°C. The increasing temperature has significant impacts:
 Disruption of the water cycle. In some parts of the globe there will be more evaporation and less precipitation, leading
to desertification. In other areas there will be excessive rainfall and flooding. With more evaporation there will be
more water vapour in the atmosphere, more clouds and therefore more rainfall.
 Melting of ice sheets resulting in raised sea level drowning densely populated coastal areas. This is especially critical
for small island developing states which have limited land area.
 Change in carbon and oxygen cycles resulting in poor air quality for living organisms.
 Shifts in the ranges of plants and animals. .
 Changes in crop yield.
 The spread of diseases now found in the tropics into temperate regions.
Researchers have found direct correlations between the increasing amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere (13 per cent
by volume over last century) and increasing mean global temperatures. There are a small number of scientists who do not
believe that this change is caused by human activities. They believe that natural processes are responsible for global warming.
1. Define the term greenhouse gases. 1. Greenhouse gases are those gasses like the glass of a greenhouse that are transparent to
incoming rays but trap the outgoing heat. These gasses are important in keeping the earth’s
2. Name two greenhouse gases.
atmosphere warm enough for living organisms.
3. Describe the role of greenhouse gases
2. Two greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide and methane.
in global warming.
3. Excess emissions of gases such as carbon dioxide accelerate the warming of the atmosphere.
4. Explain how two economic activities
Over a relatively short time period, average global temperatures are increasing significantly as
contribute to global warming.
more heat is trapped and little lost into space.
4. Two activities which contribute to global warming are
i) the continued use of fossil fuels such as oil and gas for industrial activity and heating;
ii) the use of oil for transportation vehicles.
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Conclusion
Atmospheric conditions vary greatly on a meso-and micro-scale. The movement of air masses and weather systems strongly
influence the weather experienced at any one place and time. The dynamic interactions both horizontally and vertically are
responsible for particular weather conditions. The study of rising air and lapse rates with resultant stable/ unstable conditions
helps in the understanding of the development of clouds and precipitation.
Human activities, particularly industrial activity, large settlements and forest clearance, have had a severe impact on global and
local atmospheric conditions. Global warming is a threat to many densely settled coastal areas.
Key Points
 Vertical changes in temperature (lapse rates) influence the formation of precipitation.
 Unstable conditions produce rainfall.
 Weather maps can be used analyze and forecast weather conditions.
 Human activity is accelerating global warming leading to climatic change.
 Small areas can have varied atmospheric conditions.
End Test
1. Global warming is of great concern
as it may
I. cause sea level to rise
II. raise the earth’s temperatures
III. increase storm activity
IV. change agricultural patterns
a. l and ll only b. ll and lll only
c. l, ll and lll only d All of the
above
2. The effects of replacing vegetation
with urban structures are higher
l. ground temperatures
ll. transpiration
lll. relative humidity
IV. wind speed
a. l and ll only b. ll and lll only
c. l and lll only d ll and IV only
3. Study the weather map Figure 2.5
above.
The system labelled A is an
Figure 2.5
a. anticyclone b. depression
c. cold front d. cyclone End Test Feedback
4. Describe three ways in which 1. d

variations in the earth’s orbital 2. c
characteristics affect the amount of
solar energy received on earth. 3. d
4. The earth’s orbit around the sun changes from almost circular to elliptical. The more elliptical the
path, the greater is the variation in energy received between perihelion (when the sun is closest to
the earth) and aphelion (when the path is farthest).
As the earth rotates on its polar axis, it wobbles, changing the timing of the equinoxes and the
solstices.
The tilt of the earth’s axis of rotation changes. The smaller the tilt, the less the climatic variation
between summer and winter in middle and higher latitudes. Winters are mild, summers cooler,
snow accumulates and glaciers form. With a larger tilt, glaciers recede
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3. VEGETATION TYPES
Introduction
Over much of the world, human activity has replaced or modified the natural vegetation and the term today refers to plant life
that would exist had it not been for human interference. These plant communities are a vital resource which support many
critical functions. Vegetation builds and protects soil; regulates the flow of the water, carbon and nitrogen cycles; preserves
biodiversity and provides a habitat for wildlife. In addition, vegetation is very important in maintaining the global energy
balance.
This module examines four major biomes or geographically defined communities characterized by the dominant plant life: the
tropical rainforest, tropical grasslands, temperate grasslands and northern coniferous forests. It looks at the development
issues in the tropical rainforest and on a local scale, it examines the influence of rock type and relief on the distribution of
vegetation.
Content
 Distribution and characteristics of tropical rainforest and its development, northern coniferous forests, tropical and
temperate grasslands.
 Relationships between vegetation types and soil, climate and human factors.
 Vegetation variation on a local scale.
 Quadrats, transects and sampling.
Distribution and Characteristics of Types of Vegetation
The main control on the global distribution of vegetation is climate. Plant growth ceases when temperatures fall below 6.5°C;
water is essential to the absorption of plant nutrients. Therefore, seasonal temperature and rainfall variations will produce
different plant communities. This module will examine the characteristics of two forest biomes: tropical rainforest, northern
coniferous forest; and two grasslands: tropical grasslands, temperate grasslands.
Tropical Rainforest
Distribution
This forest is found between latitude 10° north
and south of the equator and covers roughly six
per cent of the earth’s land surface. The largest
extent is the rainforest of Brazil; smaller areas exist
in Central Africa and the islands of Indonesia. In
the Caribbean, Guyana and Trinidad and Tobago
and the southern volcanic islands all have areas of
tropical rainforest.
Climatic conditions Figure 3.1 Distribution of rainforest
This equatorial climate is marked by a lack of
seasonality. Temperatures are between 28—30 °C all year; it receives more than 2,000 mm of rainfall annually with daily
convectional showers. There is a very brief season when these areas receive less rainfall and the humidity is high. The growing
season is year round and there is no resting stage.
Layers
Five layers can be distinguished. Emergents form a discontinuous layer at about 40 to 50 m (Figure 3.2).
Figure 3.2 shows the layer that forms the canopy. Here trees have overlapping branches which, however, rarely interlock, a
device which 18 probably protective. The third tree storey comprises a discontinuous layer of elongate short trees and tree
ferns where light is available. The shrub layer is made up of younger members of the trees in the upper storeys. Their growth
is suppressed until a larger tree is removed and light pierces the understorey. The poorly developed ground layer comprises
low- growing herbs and fungus.
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Species
There is a great variety of trees and single species dominance is extremely rare. Every layer has its own species. One hectare
may contain almost 500 species of plants and these forests support the greatest diversity of living organisms on earth. The
forests are evergreen as trees grow continually in these ideal conditions. Trees lose their leaves but at different times of the
year. Hardwoods such as green heart, purple-heart, Brazil nut and silk-cotton tree are common.
Figure 3.2 Structure of the tropical rainforest

These generally have:
 plank buttress roots to support the tall, slim, branchless trunks. Shallow roots may run along the leaf-littered forest
floor
 thin barks to allow excess transpiration
 shallow crowns of branching foliage near the top of the tree since light is unavailable at lower levels and horizontal
extent is limited by other trees
 broad leaves in understorey trees for maximum absorption of sunlight. Some leaves may have drip tips and oily
coatings to allow excessive water to run off. Leaves of the tallest emergent trees may be small and phototropic to
avoid exposure to intense vertical insolation.
Other forms
Thick woody lianas have their roots on the floor but loop around trunks and branches to reach the light. Whereupon, they
produce large crowns. Epiphytes - orchids, bromeliads, ferns – grow in the rotting vegetation collected in the crevices on
canopy trees. Stranglers, such as figs, are unique to the tropical rainforest. They begin their lives as epiphytes but produce
strong roots which descend to the ground and, strengthened by increased nutrients, surround the host plants and eventually
kill them.
Opportunities and problems of rainforest development
Equatorial/tropical rainforests remain one of the few major biomes where larger areas exist in a natural state. However,
conflicts over how they are to be developed arise because they are found in developing countries with large growing and very
poor populations. Globally these forests are recognized as important natural resources for the many services they provide.
They are carbon sinks, absorbing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and reducing the greenhouse effect. But this global
urge for preservation/conservation must be balanced by the need for land and food as well as opportunities for development
to raise the standard of living of the population.
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In most countries, deforestation is taking place at an alarming rate. Figure 3.3 shows the rate of deforestation in the Brazilian
Amazon. Valuable forest resources are being lost, in some instances before their potential is realized. It represents a loss to the
poor who depend on the forests for subsistence – farmers, tappers, nut collectors. It also represents a loss to the world. Many
NGOs and international organizations are pressing governments in countries such as Brazil and Indonesia to conserve their
forests. The Brazilian government is concerned that their sovereignty is being eroded because of the international pressure.
The problem – Brazil

The tropical forests are home to many indigenous peoples who depend on the forests for their livelihood. Between 300,000
and 400,000 people belonging to about 400 different indigenous groups inhabit the Amazon rainforests. Indigenous and
public lands cover the majority of the state and while some areas are protected, others are classified as empty. The forests are
their home and support both their spiritual life as well as their physical needs. Many live by subsistence farming, and
traditionally they clear the land for shifting cultivation. The forests have low ecological capacity and this limits agricultural
productivity. The rapid decrease in fertility encourages migration and therefore deforestation. It has been estimated that about
25 per cent of forest clearance in the Brazilian Amazon today is the result of this practice. Some deforestation is also
associated with mining activities and mercury contamination has led to conflict between the miners and the indigenous
populations.
Far more important as a cause of deforestation are the activities of cattle ranchers. Cattle rearing on a large scale resulted from
three main developments. The first was the control of foot-and-mouth disease which had hampered the export of Brazilian
beef. In addition, the mad cow disease in Europe stimulated a demand for grass-fed rather than animal protein fed cattle.
Finally, there were the vast improvements in the management and breeding of cattle. Roads were built in the forested area and
there was a dramatic expansion of cattle ranching and rise in the export of beef to Europe and the United States. These
developments brought ranchers into, at times, violent conflict with indigenous peoples as indigenous lands were expropriated.
Land was also cleared for the growing of soya beans for export and large multinational companies became involved in every
aspect of production in Brazil. Large-scale cattle ranching is thought to be responsible for about 65 to 70 percent of forest
clearance and commercial farming between 5 to 10 per cent. In addition, logging - legal and illegal - clears between 2 and 3
percent and fires, urbanization, road construction between and 2 percent. There is now competition for land on the frontier
where unclaimed land is increasingly in short supply.
Similar issues face other countries with large reserves of tropical forests. The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC),
Indonesia, Myanmar and Honduras all face the problem of trying to balance the need for income to finance development and
repay debt, and to conserve resources. The loss of biodiversity is one of the costs of poverty. In Indonesia, forests lands are
being cleared for the growth of oil palm, soya and lumber for export. The habitats of species are being destroyed — the
orangutans, Sumatran tiger and rhino, Asian elephants and species of tarsiers. The destruction of habitats is one of the major
reasons why these species are now on the endangered list.
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Opportunities
These forests also offer opportunities for development. Peoples who are dependent on natural resources use must be given
opportunities that generate incentives for conservation. One suggestion is for training in the techniques and principles that
allow peoples to build self-sustaining and self-sufficient settlements. One such suggestion is for the encouragement of
permaculture, an agricultural system that mimics natural relationships. They are edible forest gardens along the lines practiced
in Kerala in India. One of the core ideas is that plants could be stacked and species planted together to make maximum use of
vertical space and available nutrients. The stacking mimics the layering of the tropical forests but trees are substituted for
plants that are directly useful. For these to work, indigenous peoples must be given titles to the land. The Virgil Island
Sustainable Farm Institute in the US Virgin Islands has established a farm to produce local food using the design principles of
permaculture.
The development of ecotourism is another possibility. There are suggestions for corporate sponsorship for parks. One
proposal is for the forested area to be subdivided into blocks which international groups, non-governmental organizations
(NGOs) and development agencies could sponsor.
Bio-prospecting is another suggestion. Many scientists believe that cures for many diseases could be found in the tropical
forests. However, extensive research is necessary to discover the genetic material. Bio- prospecting is the exploration for plants
that could provide commercially valuable genetic and biochemical resources. The convention on Biological Diversity
recognizes the rights of countries to establish legislation to regulate access to biological resources. A company wishing to gain
access to a country’s biodiversity must obtain permission. An agreement between Costa Rica and an international
pharmaceutical company demonstrates how the use of genetic resources can conserve biodiversity and assist in the
development of the country. The company has a contract to look for plants with pharmaceutical possibilities. In return the
company will provide the country with a research budget, royalties on any resulting commercial products, technical assistance
and training to establish drug research in Costa Rica. Costa Rica will use a part of the funding for conservation projects. A
company in Madagascar has an agreement to explore for new scents and flavors for the fragrance industry and share profits
with local communities.
Carbon credits: The burning of tropical forests produces about 20 percent of greenhouse gas emissions, especially carbon
dioxide. The United Nations has approved a carbon credit scheme - the Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and
Degradation (REDD) - a trial scheme aimed at saving the remaining forests by paying governments to conserve. The payment
would reflect the value of the carbon stored in the forests or the lost opportunity costs of removing the forests for the
production of grain or cattle rearing.
Debt for nature swaps involves the forgiveness of debts in exchange for local investment in conservation projects.
Many NGOs are concerned that such projects would lead to convicts which would result in a loss of livelihoods and would
allow rich nations to avoid carbon emission cuts at home.
Iwokrama, Guyana
The Iwokrama International Centre for Rainforest conservation and Development in Guyana covers an area of 360,000 ha of
virgin forest and has as its aim the sustainable use of the forest. It includes the indigenous population in its activities. Small
populations practicing slash and bum agriculture over large areas is sustainable as the forest has a chance to regenerate.
Sustainable forestry in small areas, ecotourism and reduction of road building will all help to ensure the survival of the
rainforest while providing space, employment and food for growing populations. Donors to the project include the British
Department for International Development (DIFID), the European Commission, the Canadian International Development
Agency (CIDA) and the International Tropical Timber Organization.
Northern temperate coniferous forest
Distribution
Coniferous forests occur between latitudes 45° and 57° north of the equator. Large areas are found in northern Canada and
northern Russia. They cover 22 per cent of the earth’s land area. Some areas are cultivated/ replanted forests as these are the
soft woods of the pulp and paper industry.
35
Climatic conditions
Winters here are long and cold and temperatures only briefly rise over the 6°C limit of plant growth and the annual range is -
30 °C to 15 °C. Total annual precipitation is low - less than 500mm - and most comes in the form of snow. Most growth
occurs in the long days of the short summer period, when melt water is available.
Species
The coniferous forest has relatively few species of trees. They occur in pure stands adapted to particular edaphic conditions.
The forests of North America and Europe consist of conifers such as pine, fir, spruce. In eastern Siberia, larches, birch and
aspen are common. The larch sheds its leaves in winter and is, therefore, deciduous. Heavy precipitation in coastal British
Columbia and California is responsible for dense stands of some of the world’s tallest trees — the coastal redwood and
Douglas fit. The forest consists of a single layer of trees branching near the ground with decreasing horizontal extent giving
them a typical conical shape. The low-branching trees form a continuous vegetation cover. There is no undergrowth as little
light reaches the frozen, snow-covered surface. Trees are generally slow-growing and mainly evergreen. Coniferous trees are
characterized by:
 conical shape — branches decrease in width with increasing height to allow heavy snow to fall to the ground and not
break the branches
 shallow, spreading roots — use melt water of the short summer period to begin growth
 thick bark — reduces transpiration in conditions of low moisture availability. It also protects trees from fire damage
 height up 40 m - slow growing in cold, dry conditions crown to trunk ratio l:l - branching from near the surface
 needle leaves — leaves are actually furled tightly to reduce transpiration and withstand extreme cold.
1. Explain how each of three characteristics of 1. Coniferous trees are very well adapted to the low temperatures and frozen conditions of
the coniferous forest are responses to harsh northern climates.
climatic conditions.
Needle leaves with a thick cuticle cut down on transpiration as moisture is not available
2. Explain the relationship between climate and and also protects the leaf from very low temperatures.
vegetation in the tropical rainforest.
Conical shape allows the trees to survive heavy snow falls which pass through the
branches without weighing them down or breaking them.
Shallow spreading roots allow the trees to begin their growth cycle as soon as the ice
begins to melt making water available.
2. Climate and vegetation of the tropical rainforest are all interdependent. High temperatures
and year round rainfall promote luxuriant growth. The forests are, therefore, evergreen for
although species lose their leaves, they do so at different times of the year. Shade from
the canopy layers produces a micro climate which influences the shape of the trees in the
understorey, reduces the growth of plants and is responsible for a sparse ground layer.
There are other elements in the forests which respond to light or the absence of light —
lianas, which climb to the top, bromeliads, which grow on plants exposed to light. The
vegetation is an important element in the water cycle, transferring water back into the
atmosphere. Plants influence the climate so much that deforestation often leads to
desertification of an area.
Tropical grasslands
Distribution
Tropical forest naturally gives way to grasses where water availability decreases. Grasslands are found inland between forest
and desert biomes. These areas are 5°—20° north and south of the equator. They often have local names: North Venezuela —
llanos; southern Brazil - Campos, southern Guyana - Savanna; North and South Africa - savanna.
Climatic conditions
These tropical areas are marked by a significant annual and daily range of temperatures and seasonal water deficit. There is a
short wet season with annual rainfall less than 1,100 mm.
36
Species
Grasses are dominant but trees are not uncommon. Species of grasses include elephant grass (up to 5 m) and other tufted
species. There is discontinuous ground cover with bare patches between clumps of grasses or trees. The vegetation also varies
seasonally, with lush expanses of grasses occurring in the rainy season.
Grasses are generally:
 deciduous — they wither during the dry season and grow rapidly in the wet season
 tussocky — growing in deep-rooted clumps as they seek water underground
 characterized by narrow blades — to reduce transpiration.
Trees are widely scattered and specially adapted to thrive under local conditions. Some are found along water courses. Many of
the species are thorny. A characteristic tree is the flat-topped acacia and the water-storing baobab. In general, they have:
 huge trunks — of medium height and large diameter to store water
 thick barks — to reduce transpiration and survive fire damage
 very shallow crowns — small areas of foliage reduce transpiration
 small leathery leaves — to reduce transpiration
 deep roots — to tap underground water sources.
Note: You are advised to do a detailed study of one specific area of tropical grasslands to include the influence of human
activity, animals, fire and soil conditions in its occurrence. One example is given below.
Grassland in East Africa
East African savannas are typically acacia savannas. Many survive in the famous game parks of Kenya and Tanzania, and also
those of Zimbabwe, Botswana, South Africa and Namibia. In Kenya, tropical grasslands are found mainly within the Rift
Valley and adjacent areas, such as the Mara Plains on the west and the Loita on the east. Evidence indicates that forest climatic
climax vegetation changed to the present open savannah as a result of climate change, overgrazing and fires. At an elevation of
1,820 m, average temperature ranges from 19°C in summer to l7°C in cooler winter months. Annual rainfall is 958 mm with
four months (March-June) receiving some surplus. The remaining months however are in moisture deficit and there may be
reliance on stored ground water. Additional moisture is obtained from melt water streams and springs which originate at the
foot of Mt Kilimanjaro (in Tanzania), and waterholes. This extra moisture supply is often negated by major droughts.
Land-use
For several centuries the semi-nomadic pastoralists Maasai moved through the area with their cattle following the rains and
pasture. The Kikuyu people on the other hand occupied the upland area east of the Rift Valley and the two coexisted with
mutually beneficial interaction. Colonial ‘parceling’ of the land confined a growing Maasai population to the Mara plains and
allowed the Europeans and increased numbers of Kikuyu to expand into the drier Laikipia Plains. This exerted great pressure
on the carrying capacity of the Kenyan savannas. The East African savannas are actually a mosaic of communities controlled
(and today managed) by fire and grazing pressures. The Serengeti Plains in Tanzania is a grass savanna developed on nutrient-
rich volcanic sands.
Fire: Two groups of plants that are adapted to survive fire become dominant in areas where burning is frequent and periodic.
Such fires have both natural and human origins. Lightning especially causes many natural fires. On the African savannas large
areas are fired seasonally to encourage the growth of grass species with a high nutritive value for grazing animals.
Palms have the advantage of being monocotyledons: their vascular bundles are scattered throughout the stem so that
scorching of the outermost layer of the trunk will not kill the plant. (Most trees are dicotyledos and have their vascular bundles
arranged around the outer living part of their stems where they may be easily destroyed by fire.)
Perennial grasses have underground stems or rhizomes and so their growth nodes are protected by the soil during a ground
fire. Trees and shrubs - with renewals buds above the surface - are selected against by fire and the balance tips toward the
grasses.
Grazing: Large mammals such as the elephant open woodlands by debarking the trees and by knocking them over. This opens
the woodland to grass invasion and attracts a variety of grazing animals, including zebras, wildebeest and the diverse antelopes
37
of the Ethiopian province. Grazers will both eat and trample tree seedlings, inhibiting the regrowth of the woodland. Only
well-armed species of shrubs and trees can establish themselves in the clearings, leading to thickets of thorny acacias.
Protected in the thicket, some acacias and other thorny trees will grow to mature specimens.
Human activities can contribute to overgrazing. Herding is a way of life in the grasslands of Africa. If a grass savanna is
overgrazed, patches of bare ground will be created. The grassland will no longer carry a ground fire and invasion by trees
becomes possible. The bare ground will suffer from increased evaporation and a dry microhabitat quickly develops. Well-
armed, drought-resistant species like the acacias tolerate both grazing and drought, so again an acacia savanna can become
established.
Today fire is still used to control the growth of grass and herds perpetuate the association of grass and thorny, acacia-like trees.
Explain four features of the tropical 1. The dominant plant is grasses with few trees. Generally the low rainfall inhibits the growth of
grassland vegetation. trees.
2. Grasses are deciduous in habit: withering and remaining dormant in the dry season, and
shooting in the rainy season.
3. A moderate net primary production with considerable storage in soil since there is little leaching
and low decomposition in drought conditions.
4. Trees such as the baobab are well adapted to the grasslands with a large storage trunk and
little foliage to reduce transpiration.
Temperate grasslands
Distribution
The temperate grasslands occur in large areas of central North America (prairies and Central Europe (steppes) as well as the
smaller pampas of South America and the veldt of South Africa. They occur around 40°-50° north and south of the equator in
the interior of the continents. In many areas the grasslands have been replaced by Wheat and other cereals as well as cattle-
ranching.
Climatic conditions
These temperate areas experience a large seasonal range of temperatures (-20 °C to 15 °C) and frozen forms of precipitation.
Annual precipitation is about 1,000 mm and there is a short growing season.
Temperate grasslands lie south of the large coniferous belts of North America and Eurasia.
Species
This type of vegetation is marked by an absence of trees except along rivers and in valley bottoms. Tall grasses are found in
areas of moderate soil-water deficit and form a continuous cover. They include Species such as bluestem grasses. Short grasses
are found where the soil-water deficiency is substantial and they grow in clumps with bare soil exposed. Typical grasses in
North America include buffalo grass.
Some grasses are perennial.
In this vegetation:
 growth buds are at or just below the surface and can survive drought, cold and fire
 the dense root sod traps moisture and nutrients and readily begins growth as soon as meltwater is available.
Note: You should study one specific example of this type of vegetation: investigate the influence of human activity (cultivation
and grazing) and fire. One example is given below.
Temperate Grasslands in North American Prairies
Up to the late l9th century there was little change in the prairie grassland. Species included purple needle grass, galleta, blue
stem, buffalo and grama grasses. These once extensive plains, running from Illinois in the east to Wyoming in the west and
from Texas in the south to Alberta, Canada in the north, persisted despite environmental pressure such as hunting by Native
38
Americans, lightning-induced fires, stampeding bison herds and unpredictable rainfall. Ploughing and removal of grass
exposed the soil to severe wind erosion during the drought of the l930s. This created the Dust Bowl which resulted in the loss
of 50 million ha of agricultural land and endangered another 50 million ha. States most affected were Oklahoma, Kansas,
Colorado, Texas and New Mexico. Because of extensive wheat and com cultivation, damming of rivers for irrigation, very little
short grass prairie, an estimated 34 per cent of true mixed-grass prairie and 23 per cent long-grass remain.
Vegetation Variation on a Local Scale
On a local scale, broad climatic conditions are assumed to be similar. Therefore, variations in vegetation will arise from surface
conditions such as rock type, altitude, slope angle and drainage of the land. These factors Will influence soil development and,
therefore, the vegetation which can develop. Changes in vegetation on a local scale can be abrupt with little transition.
Rock type
The nature of the rock, especially its chemical composition and structure, will greatly influence the vegetation by controlling
the type of soil which will develop. The parent material determines the processes and rate of weathering which determines the
rate and depth of the soil. It also shapes the chemical composition of the soil and, therefore, the nutrients available to the
plants. In addition the texture of the rock influences the structure of the soil, especially its drainage capacity. There may be
different rock types in the local area and this will affect the characteristics of the vegetation they support.
Altitude
Changes in altitude have sometimes been compared to changes in latitude as decreasing temperatures with increasing altitude
is similar to decreasing temperature with latitude. Slope angle, the depth of the soil as well as drainage may change with
altitude. On steep slopes, thin soils and rapid drainage result in very thin vegetation cover; while flat surfaces may become
waterlogged and support only water-tolerant plants like swamp grasses.
Transects can be used to measure changes of vegetation with changes in Slope angle over small distances.
Vegetation study
A study of vegetation in an area usually involves taking a sample, and careful planning is needed to ensure that the sample is
representative of the vegetation in the area.
First, a decision on the purpose of the study has to be made and a standard sampling unit is selected. This is usually a quadrat
which may be a square, rectangle or even a circle. Traditionally, square quadrats have been used. The quadrats may be fixed or
marked out with stakes and a rope.
The size of the quadrat selected depends on the height and the density of the vegetation. It should be large enough to contain
a significant number of plants but small enough to identify, count and measure the plants. For trees, quadrat sizes of 20 m x 20
m may be used; shrubs, 4 m x 4 m; grasses, 1 m x 1 m.
A decision has to be taken on the way in which the sample is to be selected. There are three main ways:
1. Random sample. If the area is large and the vegetation is fairly uniform, a random sample may be taken. The easiest
method is to close the eyes and throw the quadrat from above should be level. This may not be possible if quadrats are
large. Alternatively, a grid may be ' placed over a map of the area, and squares selected using a random number table.
2. Random sampling may result in clustering and to avoid this, the area could be subdivided and each sampled randomly.
This is a stratified random sample. Stratified sampling can also be a deliberate tool when - there are identified differences
in the vegetation in the area to be ' studied.
3. Systematic sample. In systematic samples, samples are taken at fixed intervals. Plots may be sampled along a line transect,
or along a belt transect. The line transect only involves a length dimension. The belt transect involves both width and
length. These transects are useful in studying vegetation changes along an environmental gradient, for example changes
with slope, or light, or soil. In such cases, the transect must run parallel to the gradient. In a line transect, a rope may be
placed along the gradient and the species touching the line studied at intervals or continuously. The presence or absence
of species may be recorded. This information could be combined with for example, slope measurements. In a belt
transect, quadrats may be placed along the transect and the vegetation studied continuously or at intervals.
39
Analysis
Analysis Frequency: this is the number of times a plant species occurs in a given number of quadrats. It may be expressed as a
percentage:

Abundance: the number of individuals of a certain species in a given area. It may be expressed as a percentage:

Density: the number of plants rooted in each quadrat:

Cover: the percentage of the quadrat covered by the species:

Those who would like to take the analysis farther could carry out a chi square test for significance, although this is not a
requirement of the CAPE Geography syllabus. For example, an examination of 120 sites on a limestone outcrop revealed that
the frequency of sage was 25 or 30 per cent on 120 sites on the clay outcrop the frequency was 40 per cent that is 48 out of
120. The null hypothesis is that the difference is due to chance in the sampling process and that there are no real differences in
the frequency on the two rock types. A significance level of 0.05 is selected. The following is the contingency table:
Table 3.1 Observed and expected frequency for the species sage
LIMESTONE CLAY TOTAL
Observed Expected Observed Expected
120 x 78 120 x 78
30 =100 48 =100 78
240 240
120 x 162 120 x 162
120 – 30 = 90 =100 120 – 48 = 72 =100 162
240 240
120 120 240
∑
Chi Square Formula: ∑
O Observed Value
30 39 48 39 90 81 72 81
E Expected Value
39 39 39 39
2.1 2.1 1.0 1.0 6.2
The chi square of 6.2 can be compared with the critical value of chi square table. For a 2. X 2 contingency table the degrees of
freedom (df) are 1. With a significance level of 0.05 the critical value of x2 with l df is 3.84. The calculated value is much larger
than this so the null hypothesis can be rejected at this level. Therefore, there is a real difference in the frequency in the two
sites.
40
Activity 3.3 1 Feedback
1. Explain the distribution of: 1. a. Tropical rainforest is found between latitude 10° north and south of the Equator and
around six per cent of the earth’s land surface. The largest area is in Brazil with smaller
a. tropical rainforest
areas in Central Africa, Indonesia, Guyana and Trinidad and Tobago and the southern
b. tropical grasslands volcanic islands.
c. temperate grasslands b. Tropical grasslands are found where water availability is not able to sustain tropical
rainforests. They tend to be found inland between forest and desert landscapes in the
d. northern temperate coniferous areas are 5°- 20° north and south of the Equator.
forest.
c. Temperate grasslands occur in the Prairies of central North America and the Steppes of
2. What climatic conditions are required Central Europe south of the large coniferous belts of North America and Eurasia. Smaller
for each of the above to thrive areas exist in South America, the Pampas, and South Africa, the Veldt. They occur around
40° - 50° north and south of the Equator in the continental interior.
d. Temperate coniferous forests occur between latitudes 45°- 57° north of 7 the Equator and
cover 22 per cent of the earth's land area. The largest areas are found in northern Canada
and northern Russia.
2. a. The climate required for tropical rainforest is warm and wet with temperatures of 28 - 30
°C throughout the year and over 2,000 mm rainfall with heavy daily convectional
showers.
b. Tropical grasslands have a significant annual and daily range of temperatures and
variations in water availability depending on the season. The wet summer season tends to
be offset by the dryer remaining months where there is a water deficit. The annual rainfall
is less than 1,100 mm.
c. Temperate grassland areas experience a large seasonal range of temperatures (-20 °C
to 15 °C) which means that there is a short growing season. Annual precipitation is about
1,000 mm.
d. The climate where temperate coniferous rainforests are found have annual temperatures
that only briefly rise over the 6°C required for plant growth. There is a large annual
temperature range of -30 °C to 15 °C with long and cold winters. The total annual
precipitation is low at less than 500 mm with most coming in the form of snow. The most
growth occurs in the long days of the short summer period when the temperatures rise
high enough to allow the snow to melt.
Key Points
Rainforest, coniferous forest and tropical and temperate grasslands have all adapted to their environments, especially climate,
in particular ways.
Climate, soil and human factors influence the distribution and nature of non-cultivated vegetation.
Local vegetation is influenced by relief and drainage.
Quadrats and transects can be used to investigate variations in vegetation.
Conclusion
Natural vegetation is one of the most important resources facilitating human activity. Its role in the water and material cycles is
crucial to human life. Although this resource has been modified or replaced in many ways, there is a growing realization of
man’s dependence on vegetation. The distribution and nature of vegetation is controlled by climate conditions but develops
with the soil. In some ecosystems such as the grasslands, human activity, fire and the natural fauna have had significant effects
on the distribution of the vegetation. On a local scale, factors such as altitude and slope of the land influence the nature and
distribution of the vegetation.
41
End Test Figure 3.4 Structure of tropical rainforest Use Figure 3.4 to answer questions 1- 3
Identify the correct answer to each of the following multiple
choice questions.
1. The layer Z consists of mainly
a. low shrubs
b. undergrowth
c. small trees
d. mosses/lichens
2. The layer X is the
a. understorey
b. canopy
c. emergent
d. undergrowth
3. One characteristic of layer Y is
a. continuous cover
b. elongate crowns
c. tall trees
d. mosses
Feedback
1. d
2. b
3. b
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4. SOIL
General objective
On completion of this you should understand principles governing the development of soil.
Specific objectives
 Explain soil formation, soil types, soil erosion and conservation
 Explain the interrelationships among climate, soil, vegetation and human activities.
Introduction
Soil is one of the most valuable of the earth’s resources. It is the earth’s surface layer where plant nutrients are produced and
stored. It is a complex mixture of organic and inorganic materials, water and air which supports a variety of living organisms.
It plays a vital role in nutrient cycles as discussed in Module 3 — Vegetation Types.
Many processes in the soil change complex minerals into simpler forms which can be absorbed by plant roots. The type of soil
which develops on a surface is dependent on such factors as parent material, climate, vegetation, human activities and time.
Most ancient civilizations developed in areas of fertile, alluvial or volcanic soils used for the cultivation of food. Soil also
supports the growth of non-food industrial raw materials, such as cotton and flax for textiles, forest plantations for paper and
corn for ethanol. In the Caribbean, the best agricultural soils have been used for commercial export crops from colonial times,
with peasant farms surviving on marginal land with poor soils. This link between agriculture and soils with be explored in
Module 6 - Agriculture.
Soils are exposed to all types of human activity. They have been replaced by impermeable concrete and asphalt surfaces
supporting buildings as well as being ploughed, drained and fertilized. The realization of negative impacts on soils and
accelerated soil erosion has led to the development of methods of soil conservation to try to restore its productivity.
Content
 Soil properties.
 Processes of soil formation
 Factors influencing soil formation.
 Soil types under tropical rainforest and temperate grasslands. Study of soil horizons in the field.
 Soil erosion and soil conservation.
Factors Influencing Soil Formation
Soil properties reflect the combined effect of parent material, climate, biotic activities and topography. These are the soil-
forming factors.
Parent material
Soils are formed from the melt: or parent material either directly below or transported by wind, water or ice. A newly
exposed/formed surface may be volcanic, alluvial, marine, aeolian or glacial in origin. It may be solid rock or loose deposited
materials. The younger the soil the greater then tendency to reflect the properties of the parent material.
In the Caribbean, varied parent materials influence soil formation and properties. The soils of Jamaican white and yellow
limestone formations are very different from the soils of the Eastern Caribbean volcanic islands. Both of these parent
materials result in different soils as do the old granite shield materials of southern Guyana and the metamorphic parent
materials of the Northern Range of Trinidad.
In temperate areas, the parent material may be glacial drift and these greatly influences the development of soils in, for
example, the Continental interiors under temperate grasslands.
43
Climate
The climatic conditions which a newly formed surface is exposed will control the physical, chemical and biotic processes that
affect soil formation.
 Temperature and moisture are the most important variable affecting soil formation. The higher the temperature the
higher the rate of physical weathering and the activities of soil organisms.
 Physical weathering is the disintegration of rocks into smaller fragments and may be caused by frost wedging, thermal
expansion and contraction and mechanical exfoliation.
 The temperature also affects rates of chemical weathering which involves solution, oxidation and hydrolysis. The
interaction between rock type and climate will therefore affect the rate and depth of soil formation. The high rainfall
and temperatures of the humid tropics produce deeply weathered soils.
 Precipitation and temperature regimes will allow or inhibit the growth of vegetation as well as biotic activity. Tropical
rainforest will have a different effect on soil formation from temperate grasslands» in addition the year round bacterial
decay in tropical moist was is not possible in the seasonally frozen soils of temperate climates
 Soil water balance is directly influenced by climatic conditions. Evaporation losses and rates of infiltration depend on
the type and if: amount of water reaching the soil. These will in turn affect leaching and capillary action. Soil moisture
conditions are also very important to its fertility and productivity.
Biotic
Living organism are important in soil formation. The soil processes under a tropical rainforest are vastly different from those
under temperate grasslands, partly because of the differences in nutrient cycling under different types of vegetation.
 Vegetation provides cover for the soil protecting it from the suns drying rays, breaking the impact of rainfall and
lessening exposure to winds. The roots of plants help to stabilize and hold the soil together
 Exposed soils are easily eroded.
 Vegetation influences the type and the amount of organic matter that accumulates in the soil. It gives the soil structure
and improves fertility.
 Soil organisms assist in the decomposition of organic matter. The end product is humus, a substance that enhances
the soils water-holding capacity, improves the soil structure and is the main source of carbon and nitrogen required by
plants.
Human beings have a very significant effect on soil development:
 Natural vegetation, when replaced by domesticated crops and livestock, changes the vegetation/soil interrelations.
Agricultural practices may leave soil exposed to soil erosion. Livestock may trample and compact soils.
 The addition of fertilisers changes the chemical composition of the soil.
 Nutrients are removed as crops are harvested.
 Irrigation and drainage of soil influence the soil-water balance.
Topography
Topography modifies the effect of climate and biotic influences. It affects the orientation of the soil surface towards the sun
and this is more important in higher than lower latitudes. The slope of the land affects the depth of soil and water movement.
Generally soils in upper steep slopes will be thinner and drier than those on lower gently sloping areas. There would be
transfer of soil under gravity from the top to the bottom of the slope. Shedding or degrading will occur on the steeper higher
slopes and receiving or accumulation on the lower flatter slopes. Where the water table is near the surface, drainage and the
development of the soil are restricted.
Time
Soil formation is a process and soils change and mature with time, and the soil-forming processes lead to the development of a
mature profile. This could take hundreds of years to develop.
44
Soil-Forming Processes
The process of soil formation is known as pedogenesis and a number of processes are involved.
 Ferrallisation. Soils of the tropics and subtropics are subjected to the process of laterisation or ferrallisation. Under
conditions of high rainfall and high temperatures, the byproducts of weathering, except iron and aluminum, move
downwards or are translocated in solution (leaching) or in suspension eluviation) and are deposited in the lower layers
of the soil. In this way horizons of loss or eluviated horizon and one of gain or an illuviated horizon are formed. The
iron oxides that remain in the top soil give the soil its reddish colour.
 Calcification. Where evaporation is equal to or exceeds precipitation there is upward movement of salts from ground
water. Rainwater also causes the downward movement of salts. As a result salts accumulate in the B horizon where
they form nodules of calcium carbonates at depths of maximum penetration of rain or meltwater. This occurs in the
soils under temperate grasslands. The intensive rooting systems of the grasses aid in the returning of bases to the
surface of the soil.
 Podsolization is associated with the soils that develop in mid-latitudes under coniferous forests. The decomposition
of the forest litter creates a very acid solution that removes soluble bases, iron and aluminum leaving behind a white
top layer consisting of silica sand.
 Gleying occurs in the anaerobic conditions of waterlogged soils. Organic materials accumulate in the upper horizons
while in the lower horizons iron compounds are either reduced, staining the layers blue-grey, or are segregated as
mottles.
 Salinization is very similar to calcification except that it occurs in drier areas and the salts accumulate at or near the
surface.
1. Describe the process of leaching. 1. Leaching is a general term used to refer to the downwards movement of minerals in
solution in soil water from the A to the B horizon. It is dominant in areas where
2. Explain two ways in which each of climate and
precipitation exceeds evapotranspiration; but also occurs if meltwater is present.
parent material can influence the process of
soil formation. 2. Climate impacts directly on soil formation by precipitation amounts and annual
regime. The amount of rainfall controls the potential amount of soil water available for
3. Describe two physical processes at work at
infiltration and, therefore, soil processes such as leaching. In addition the annual
each of location X and Y on Figure 4.1.
temperature range would influence the water balance which would indicate whether
4. Identify two positive and negative effects there would be a soil-water surplus or deficit.
human activity can have on soils.
Vegetation influences soil formation by adding the vital organic matter for humus. This
is a defining component of soil. Without humus there would be no soil. Vegetation
also plays a big role in holding the soil together. Plant roots help to bind the soil as
well as introduce Organic matter into the soil.
3. On Figure 4.1 the soil at X would thin, as a result of shedding on the steep slope. It
would also be dry as water moves rapidly down the slope. At Y the soil will be deep
as a result of receiving materials from X and accumulation of materials. On a nearly
flat Surface as at Y the soil is likely to be waterlogged.
4. Two positive effects of human activity on soils are:
Figure 4.1 Hill slope of uniform geology and no a. addition of fertilisers increases productivity of the soil.
marked climate difference.
b. terracing of steep slopes reduces soil erosion.
Two negative effects of human activity on soils are:
a. removing vegetation cover exposes soil to the elements
b. monoculture methods which exhaust soil nutrients.
45
Soil Properties
Profile
Soils are described by their profile which is a sequence of layers or horizons. These horizons result from some of the processes
already described—decomposition, eluviation and illuviation.
Three basic horizons are identified below.
1. A-horizon consists of the exposed surface A0 of decomposing organic matter; and below it the Al layer of dark humus. The
A horizon is the layer of eluviation where minerals are being removed by soil water.
2. B-horizon is below the A horizon. It is the layer which is receiving materials from above - illuviation.
3. C-horizon is the weathered parent material which lies just above the unweathered bedrock referred to as the R horizon.
All horizons need not be present in all soils. For example, limestone-derived soils often do not have a B horizon. In other soils
the horizons may not be well defined.
Inorganic components
Table 4.1. Size limits of soil separate (USDA)
Texture
The soil texture is described as the proportion of sand within a sample of
soil. The particles range in size from boulders to those that cannot be seen
with the naked eye. These are subdivided into the coarse and fine earths.
Fine earths or soil separates are particles of than 2 mm in diameter. Table
4.1 shows the classification of the fine earths used by the US Department of
Agriculture (USDA).
The texture triangle (Figure 4.2) is used to determine the texture class based on the soil separates. Clay soils have very fine
pores, a high water-holding capacity and are described as heavy. Despite this, clay is the most important soil separate as its
large surface area allows it to attract and retain large quantities of nutrients. Sandy soils have large pores and are dry or hungry.
Generally the most Productive soils are loams which are composed of <50 per cent sand, <30 per cent clay and 25-50 per cent
silt. This texture allows for good aeration and water movement.
Structure
Soil structure refers to the way in which the individual particles come together or aggregate to form peds. The particles are
bound together by humus and clay. The structure is defined by the shape of the pod produced:
 crumb/granular - small rounded clumps
 blocky - close-fitting block-like shapes
 platy — horizontal, overlapping Plates
 Prismatic/columnar — vertical lengths with flat or, in the case
of columnar, rounded tops.
Some immature soils may be structureless.
Organic component
Organic matter comprises both living and non-living organisms in the
soil. There are macro organisms such as earthworms-although some
do not consider these a part of the soil. Microorganisms include
bacteria, algae and fungae. These assist in the decomposition of the
remains of plants and animals in the soil. As the organic matter
decomposes, nutrients are released. Organic matter also improves the
soil strum and its ability to hold moisture.
Water
Movement of water in the soil is controlled primarily by porosity
which depends on the soil structure, texture and organic matter content. Movement is faster and freer in soils with large pores
and so any factor which increases the pore spaces such as the burrowing of animals or the action of roots will enhance
46
drainage. The storage of water in the soil is controlled by several forces, warm strongly within 0.0002 mm of the soil surface by
the attraction bum the soil surface and water is known as hygroscopic water. This water is not available to plants. Water
moved by capillary action is known as capillary water and it migrates upwards. Capillary water can be removed, by plants
though not by gravity. Plants extract this water until the forces of extraction are equal to the force with which the water is
held. At this point the soil has reached its wilting point. Water in excess of capillary and hygroscopic water is gravitational
water. Following rainfall, water may fill all the large pores (macrospores) of the soil and the soil is said to be saturated. Once
the rainfall ceases, the water will drain rapidly from the macrospores and it is this water that is held only temporarily in the soil
that is known as gravitational or free water. Once this water drains away the soil is said to be at field capacity.
Air
The soil spaces are filled either with water or air with the proportion dependent on the level of ground water and precipitation.
Compared to the lower atmosphere, soil air is rich in oxygen but poor in carbon dioxide which is used by plants and
microorganisms. In waterlogged soils, the pore spaces are filled with water and so there is no room for air. This condition is
referred to as anaerobic, a condition which dominates flooded or poorly drained areas but may develop in small areas or for
limited periods in well-drained areas.
1. List the main components of soil. . 1. The main components of soil are inorganic material, organic materials
(humus), air, water and micro and macro organisms
2. Why is a collection of weathered material not
considered soil? 2. A collection of weathered fragments such as scree is not considered soil
because it lacks organic matter. Soil must contain some Organic material
3. Explain why soil texture is important to overall soil
which gives it structure.
development.
3. Soil texture is one of its most important properties because it influences the
4. Explain the term ‘ped’.
water drainage/retention characteristics as well as the aeration by defining
5. Identify each of the soil structures labelled A-D in figure the pore spaces. Texture also influences soil structure and nutrient retention.
4.3, The texture of the soil will influence the development of plant roots.
6. Describe two features of structure C. 4. A ped is a unit of structure of the soil. Individual particles form aggregates in
a soil that behaves as a unit.
5. A - platy;
B - blocky;
C - prismatic;
D - columnar.
6. Structure C forms long vertical columns with angular sides and flat tops.
Figure 4.3 Soil Structure
Soils under Tropical Rainforests and Temperate Grasslands

Temperate Grasslands
In early classifications the soils which developed under humid tropical climates were classified as laterites/latosols. Those that
developed under cool temperate continental climates were classified as chenozems. Later systems emphasised the physical
characteristics of the horizons, processes and chemical composition of soils, for example, in the United States Department of
Agriculture (USDA) soil system these would-be types were classified as oxisols and mollisols, respectively.
47
Under conditions of high temperature, rainfall and good drainage,
the silica fraction is broken down, mobilized and leached
downwards. These processes result in the most common type of
soils found under tropical rainforests, the latosols (Figure 4.4). They
are reddish soils, a colour which results from the presence iron and
aluminum oxides that are left behind in the upper horizons. These
are old soils so weathering is deep. .
Climatic conditions foster the rapid decomposition of litter
supplied by continuous leaf fall by the soil microorganisms. In the
process of decomposition and humus formation, minerals are
released. These minerals are taken up by the roots of plants and
stored in the vegetation. Therefore, the soil serves to transfer
nutrients between decaying and matter. If the forest is undisturbed,
the loss to leaching is small.
With forest removal the cycling of nutrients ceases the soil is
leached, exposed to sun, causing an increase in chemical
decomposition is also exposed to the direct impact of rainfall and
the structure is destroyed. With the loss of fertility and structure,
soil erosion may ensure.
Properties of soils under tropical rainforest
 Up to 30 m in depth created by a long period of weathering
 Thin humus layer as a result of rapid decay.
 Horizons not well defined as a result of mixing and leaching
 Iron and aluminum remain in upper profile; silica removed.
 Processes of humification active.
 Hydration of oxides and removal of bases out of soil profile by throughflow.
 Reddish/yellow colour; loose structure.
 Generally nutrient poor.
Soils under Temperate Grasslands
These soils (Figure 4.5) develop under grasslands

summers are hot, winters cold and there is a
seasonal water deficiency. These are among the
most fertile soils in the world. Grasses grow and
decay. So do their extensive root systems. There is,
therefore, a copious supply of organic matter
which decomposes in the hot summer months
making the upper horizons rich in humus. The
roots of the grasses press the mil into a structure
that is considered ideal for the growth of plants -
the crumb structure - which is at the same time
well drained and moisture retentive. The leaching
of nutrients as the snow melts in late spring and
summer is compensated by the upward movement
of capillary water in late summer.
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Properties of soils under temperate grasslands
 I Post-glaciation weathering - soil depth 2 m.
 Thick dark humus layer up to one-third total profile.
 Slow decay in low temperatures and low water conditions.
 Good crumb structure.
 Slight leaching, accumulation of calcium concretions.
 Calcification active.
 Dark brown to black soil.
 Nutrient rich.
Soils in the Field.
The most effective method of investigating soil horizons is to dig a soil pit. This will produce a profile which can be measured
and described
The following steps may be required.
 Site selection.
This would depend on the purpose of the investigation and the principles tor selection are the same as those described for
the vegetation study in Module 3.
 Digging the pit.
Once you have identified the sites (at least two in each area to resources and time available) and checked their accessibility,
you need to get permission from the owners to dig the pit. You may select undisturbed sites with little evidence of human
activity -— fields, tracks, trampling and disturbed sites for comparison. Ideally the pit should be about 1 cubic metre.
a. Remove turf and soil onto plastic sheets.
b. Clear one face of the pit to give a clear profile, down to the parent material.
 Recording the data.
Note the characteristics of each site: topography/elevation, weather conditions, rock type, vegetation, land use. For each
sue measure and record the properties of the profile on a data recording sheet as in sample Table 4.2.
Table 4.2 Sample Data recording sheet Site A
Horizon Depth Boundary Colour Texture Structure Moisture Biota
A
B
C
Note: a soil augur may also be used to obtain soil samples. It is a corkscrew type device which is turned into the soils and on
Withdrawal brings up a sample. It is quicker and easier than the soil pit method, but even careful retrieval of soil material
results in disturbance or the profiles.
Soil samples may also be collected for testing in the lab before the pit is refilled and turf replaced.
The samples are tested and data analysed bearing in mind the original focus of the study, e.g. changes with slope; difference on
disturbed and undisturbed sites.
Soil Erosion and Soil Conservation
Soil Erosion
Soil erosion is a natural process loose material on the earth’s surface slowly moves down slope or quickly by slope failure
under the force of gravity, or is picked up by the agents of erosion such as water, wind and ice. Vegetated slopes are much
better able to withstand these natural forces as foliage protects the soil from climatic extremes, allowing water to slowly
infiltrate the surface; roots bind the soil and also introduce Organic material into lower horizons. There is a natural balance
49
between soil formation and soil erosion in mature soils. As the thin skin is removed, additions are made to the soil by
weathering below and a balance between removal and formation is maintained. This balance may be upset by human activity.
Accelerated soil erosion is the result of human activity. In particular the removal of vegetation cover is one of the main causes of
increased erosion. Improper farming methods, overgrazing by livestock and irrigation all exacerbate the natural processes of
soil erosion.
There are several agents of erosion.
Water
The effects of water “depend on the intensity of the rainfall and are greatest under high-intensity rainfall of short duration.
Excess water cannot infiltrate and soil is washed away. However, the long-term effects of low-Intensity rainfall can be
considerable. The amount of water that infiltrates well depend on the texture of the soil. Sandy soils and loams are less
erodible than soils with a high percentage of silt and clay. Erosion is also higher on unvegetated surfaces as well as over steep
and long slopes because the velocity is greater. In sheet erosion raindrop splash causes a layer of soil over a wide area to move
uniformly over the slope in soil erosion the water is concentrated into channels which may to form gullies especially where the
subsoil is unconsolidated.
Stream bank erosion may occur in water courses that are subjected to periodic flooding.
Wind erosion is a problem in areas where soil moisture level is low or during periods of drought. The dry, loose soil is most
susceptible to transport by wind when the vegetation has been removed. Fine loose particles may be transported over great
distances while coarser particles may be moved by saltation.
Table 4.3 shows the impact of human activities on soil
Action Impact on soil
Removal of vegetation Loss of interception of rainfall, increased splash
erosion/run-off, less infiltration and transpiration.
Loss of humus and roots to bind soil and absorb moisture
Ploughing/tilling Up and down slopes increases runoff down slope. Disturbs
structure and buries humus.
Fertilisers/pesticides Change chemical composition of soil Toxic to some useful
biota.
Irrigation/drainage Soil-water balance and storage disturbed. Increased leaching
and nutrient loss.
Overgrazing Both domesticated and wild animals confined to areas
smaller than their carrying capacity j will destroy the
vegetation and trample the soil 5 preventing re-growth.
Soil conservation
Major conservation methods may be subdivided into two mum mechanical and agronomic.
Mechanical
These are structural and engineering techniques designed to reduce the velocity of run-off and retain the water on the land to
facilitate infiltration. These include:
 terracing – or building an earth embankment or barrier across the slope using a combination of ridges and channels to
reduce the length of the slope. These terraces are of different types - bench, broad basal, narrow base, grassed back
slope.
In contour trenching/bunding the material removed from a series of deep trenches dug across the slope arc deposited at the
lower edge of the trenches and trees planted on them.
50
Agronomic Methods
In agronomic methods of conservation, plants are used to provide cover, increase fertility and provide a rooting network that
would improve soil structure. These measures include:
 crop rotation especially one which includes a legume
 strip cropping/contour strip cropping in which strips of crops which allow erosion alternate with strips of crops
which check erosion (such as grasses). This is combined with crop rotation
 mulching/stubble mulching protect the surface of the soil with crop residues
 the use of organic manures to improve soil structure
 the control of grazing
 afforestation/reforestation
 mixed cropping and interplanting, combining crops With different planting times and length at growth, providing
adequate crop cover
 planting of windbreaks.
Key Points
 Soils are essential for human survival.
 Soil formation involves many complex chemical processes.
 Soils, vegetation and climate are interdependent over time.
 Distinct soil types develop under tropical rainforest and temperate grasslands.
 Soils may be studied in the field using soil pit; or soil augurs.
 Accelerated raw soil erosion occurs as a result at removal of vegetation meet and improper agricultural methods
 conservation methods are berm; used to create sustainable soil use.
Conclusion
Soils are of vital importance to human existence. The sustainable use soils is essential to prevent and reduce famine and food
shortages. The complex mix of inorganic and organic minerals with air, water and biota should be considered a living
community as forests and coral reels.
The Caribbean has many areas of steep slopes occupied by small farmers supporting a significant percentage of the population
of many territories. It is vital that methods of soil conservation be applied to decrease soil erosion and promote sustainable use
of this important resource.
1. Define soil. 1. Soil is the upper most layer of the earth’s surface composed of inorganic (weathered rock)
materials, organic material (humus), air, water and micro- and macro organisms.
2. Distinguish between soil texture and
soil structure. 2. Soil texture refers to the size of the individual particles whether sand, silt or clay and in what
proportions; while soil structure refers to the shapes produced by aggregates of particles
3. Explain carefully the difference
whether crumby, platy prismatic.
between the following pair of words as
they refer to soil processes: eluviation 3. Eluviation is the movement downward soil minerals in suspension and their deposition lower
and illuviation. in the profile. Illuviation is the deposition in the lower horizon of material removed from above.
- The A horizon is associated with eluviation; while illuviation is associated with the B horizon.
4. Explain the role of climate and
vegetation in the development of soils 4. The climate of areas of temperate grasslands are temperate continental types which are
under temperate grasslands. marked by a large annual range of temperatures and low seasonal precipitation, with frozen
winter conditions. This results in little leaching except when melt water is available. The cool
5. Explain two methods of soil
dry conditions account for a thick dark humus layer since decay is very slow. The presence of
conservation and assess their
calcium nodules in the B horizon is the effect of low rainfall. The vegetation of turf-forming
effectiveness in reducing soil erosion.
grasses impact on the soil development by providing a rich humus source. In addition, the
deciduous habit of the grasses causes them to wither and accumulate on the surface.
5. One of the most effective methods of soil conservation is planting trees or grasses. These
hold the soil with their roots, protect them from the climate, and add humus to the soil.
Another effective method of soil conservation is terracing and contour ploughing. These
methods retard the flow of water down the slope and retain the soil particles at each level.
51
5. ECONOMIC STRUCTURE
General objectives
On completion of this module you should:
 Appreciate the pattern economic activities
 Develop appropriate skills and techniques in Geography
 Apply appropriate investigative and practical techniques.
Specific objective
 You should be able to classify economic activities and examine their changing relative importance.
Introduction
Economic activities fall into one of five categories – primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary and quinary. These are
determined by a number of factors, including the physical environment, which supplies the local resources available for use;
culture, which may affect food preferences and agricultural activity; the level of technological development in the country,
which has implications for the production process as well as the level of efficiency of the industries in the country;
government policy, which may affect the location and types of economic activity within a country, and economic factors such
as market and demand for goods and services.
This module defines the five categories of economic activity giving examples of each. Their changing relative importance to
the economy and reasons for those changes will also be examined. Their relationship to economic development will also be
examined.
Content
 The characteristics of primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary and quaternary economic activities.
 The Changing relative importance of the types of economic activities.
 The reasons for the changes and the relationship to economic development.
Characteristics of Economic Activities
Primary Sector
Primary economic activities refer to those activities which involve the use/harvesting of physical resources directly from the
earth. This sector involves the production of raw materials for further processing, as well as the provision of basic foods.
Primary economic activities rely heavily on natural resources such as soils, water and minerals, and provide the raw materials
for further processing within the secondary sector. Primary economic activities include:
 Agriculture
 Mining
 Fishing
 Forestry.
The proportion of workers engaged in primary activities is on the decline in both developed and developing countries. Heavy
dependence on primary economic activities is equated with a poorly developed economy, with limited linkages. The money
earned from the production and export of primary products such as bananas and bauxite in the Caribbean is less than what
could be earned if these products were further processed. In addition, jobs are created by the establishment of processing
industries in the secondary sector. Primary economic activities are dependent on the location of the resources to be exploited
such as mineral ores for mining, or fertile soils for agriculture.
Secondary Sector
This sector involves the processing of raw materials and the manufacture of goods. These can range from simple components
fora number of industries, to finished goods. The automobile industry is a good example of a secondary economic activity.
The production of each component, which is finally assembled to produce one item, encompasses the range of secondary
economic activity (Figure 5.1). The processing of wood into timber and furniture products is another example of secondary
52
economic activity. Manufacturing, processing and construction are all secondary economic activities. Activities associated with
the secondary sector include:
 the production of textiles
 brewing
 baking
 shipbuilding
In the secondary sector, value is added to primary products
through further processing. Thus wood may become
furniture; raw sugar becomes granulated sugar, and bauxite
becomes aluminum. At each stage of processing, value is
added. The resources on which the industry depends must
be accessible. The same goes for energy, markets and an
appropriate labour force.
Tertiary Sector
This sector provides services to the country. These services
are provided to the general population as well as to businesses. They range from the simple sale and distribution of goods to
the more complex range of activities associated with finance. Activities associated with this sector include:
 Retail and wholesale sales I
 Entertainment (movies, radio, theatre)
 The provision of food
 Clerical services
 Tourism
 Insurance
 Medical/legal services
 Social services.
In both developed and developing countries, this sector is one of the largest, and a growing proportion of workers are
employed in this sector. Because of its nature, this sector is heavily dependent on proximity to a market, and is not restricted
by a lack of physical resources. Many small Caribbean states offer a range of services in tourism, and tertiary activities may be
more economically important than primary activities.
53
Activity 5.1
Study Figure 5.1, which shows changes in employment by sectors in the UK between 1840 and 2000 and answer the questions that follow.
Figure 5.2 Employment sectors

With reference to information presented in Figure 5.2, discuss the changing relationship in employment among the four sectors shown.
Feedback
In the early years of industrial activity in the UK, employment in primary activities was dominant. Between 1840 and 1880, employment in the
primary sector accounted for around 50 per cent of the workforce. Secondary activities were also increasing over this time, and rose sharply
between 1840 and 1860 from 29 to 36 per cent. In contrast, tertiary employment fell 13 per cent over the same 40-year period. After 1880,
primary sector employment fell constantly until 1920. In this same period, secondary employment fell slightly then rose, while tertiary sector
employment peaked in 1900, and then declined steadily to 0 per cent in 1960. Between 1920 and 1940, employment in the secondary sector
remained constant and then rose, while that in the primary sector rose briefly before falling again.
Over the remaining time period, primary and tertiary sector employment continued to fall, while employment in the secondary sector rose sharply.
With the decline in the tertiary sector, employment in the quaternary sector became noticeable after 1960, and this sector of employment
continued to rise until 2000.
It is evident that employment in the primary sector declined as the higher sectors increased their share of employment. As the primary sector
became more efficient, employment share fell. More jobs opened up in the secondary sector, making it the most important sector in employment
in the UK over the period 1840 to 2000. Even with rising employment in the quaternary sector, the secondary sector has remained important.
Quaternary Sector
Quaternary economic activities encompass a range of intellectual activities, including the processing and distribution of
information. They are footloose industries, that is, not limited by physical resources and may be found everywhere. The most
important location factors are the availability of a good communications network and a suitably skilled workforce. The
information technology industry is an example of this type of economic activity. Firms engage in activities on a global scale
because of advances in telecommunications. Other activities in this sector include:
 Government agencies
 Libraries
 Scientific research
 Education.
The emergence of this sector reflects a highly specialized and developed economy.
Quinary Sector
Activities in the quinary sector of the economy are often considered to be a subset of the quaternary sector; however, they
involve the creation of new and old ideas and information rearrangement and interpretation as well as innovation of methods
in data interpretation.
54
Quinary economic activities encompass the most advanced form of quaternary activities consisting of high-level decision
making for large corporations or high-level scientific research:
 Research
 Defense
 Financial innovations (money markets).
As countries become more industrialized, the distinctions between quaternary and quinary economic activities tend to blur.
With the reclassification of industrial activity, from three categories to five, there is continual evolution of the meaning of
these two terms.
Figure 5.3 Higher order economic activity
Activity 5.2
Classify the activities below by sector of economic activity.
Shipbuilding, grazing, media, Chief Executive Officer (CEO), health care , information technology, University Pro-Vice Chancellor (UPRVC),
library, aerospace manufacturing, radio, culture.
Feedback
Primary Secondary Tertiary Quaternary Quinary
Grazing Shipbuilding Media Culture CEO
Aerospace Manufacturing Healthcare Information Technology UPRVC
Radio Library
55
Relative importance of economic activities
Table 5.1 Importance of economic sector, by employment %
Human Development Index
HDI Rank Employment Employment in Employment in Employment in
Total (thousand) Agriculture (%of Industry (%of Service (%of
1996 – 2005 total employment) total total
1996 – 2005 employment) employment)
1996 – 2005 1996 – 2005
High Human Development
4 Canada 16,170 3 22 75
12 United States 141,730 2 21 78
16 United Kingdom 28,166 1 22 76
31 Barbados 132 3 17 70
49 Bahamas 161 4 18 78
51 Cuba 4,642 21 19 59
57 Antigua and Barbuda 28 4 19 74
59 Trinidad and Tobago 525 7 28 64
Medium Human Development
71 Dominica 26 24 18 54
72 Saint Lucia 59 11 18 53
80 Belize 78 28 17 55
82 Grenada 35 14 24 59
93 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 35 15 20 56
97 Guyana 240 28 23 48
101 Jamaica 1,063 18 18 64
146 Haiti … 51 11 39
Activity 5.3
Using the data provided in Table 5.
1. Above, construct a series of pie charts to show the relative importance of each sector for the Bahamas. Cuba and Haiti.
2. Compare the relative importance of each sector for the Bahamas and Haiti.
Feedback
1.
Figure 5.4
2. In the Bahamas, employment in services (the tertiary sector) is the most dominant of the three sectors, accounting for 78 per cent of the
overall employment. Industry (secondary sector) is the next highest, while employment in agriculture (primary sector) is the smallest of the
three. In Haiti, employment in agriculture is the largest of the three sectors, with services second and industry third Haiti is still very heavily
dependent on primary activity. The secondary sector in Haiti is limited, but the tertiary sector is also quite important.
Reasons for Changes in Relative Importance of Sectors

Historically, primary economic activities such as agriculture and mining have played a large role in the economy of most
Caribbean countries. This was especially so in the light of the colonial administration of these countries, which focused on the
production of crops for export. Countries such as Barbados and St Kitts had strong primary sectors, centered on the
56
production of sugar cane. Their small size and lack of other physical resources ensured that agriculture held a strong position
in the economy of these islands. In the more rugged Windward Islands, the growing of bananas was the primary activity.
Jamaica, although possessing a greater range of physical resources, still heavily emphasised primary activities such as
agriculture and bauxite. Similarly, in Trinidad and Tobago, oil mining was dominant.
During the post-colonial period, many Caribbean nations sought to diversify their economies and reduce their reliance on
primary economic activity. Secondary industries were encouraged and given protection, especially manufacturing; however, the
primary sector is still very significant in countries such as Haiti, Guyana and Belize (see Table 5.1) while in countries like
Barbados, Antigua and Trinidad, its relative Importance has declined. In Trinidad, the potential of the oil industry has been
developed to the point where the secondary sector is very strongly linked to a primary resource (petroleum). There is, for
example, an iron and steel plant. Elsewhere, minerals such as bauxite remain as products of the primary sector.
High oil prices in the 19705 brought hardships to non-oil producing countries in the Caribbean such as Jamaica. Jamaica
sought help from The International Monetary Fund (IMF) and a Structural Adjustment Programme emphasised the removal
of protection from industries and the liberalizing of the economy. Local manufacturers were faced with competition from
imported goods and there was a decline in manufacturing activity. The service industry — tourism — was given
encouragement because of its potential to earn foreign exchange and its ability to absorb low-skilled labour. Employment in
the tourist industry explains the high levels of employment in the service sectors of Barbados and the Bahamas (Table 5.1).
Changes in More Developed Countries (MDCs)
In the developed world, changes in technology have resulted in a change from primary economic activities. Starting with the
Industrial Revolution new processes have made primary activities more efficient, for example the intensification of agricultural
practices, reducing the number of persons employed in this sector. A decline in the numbers employed in the primary; sector
also reflects the gradual exhaustion of primary resources such as; coal, and the necessity to import foreign products. With the
increase in i new technology and improved processing techniques, employment in manufacturing has also been declining. New
and improved methods of i production have reduced the need for a large workforce, consolidated production, and caused the
relocation and closure of industries.
Globalization has resulted in a major shift in the location and importance of manufacturing in the developed world. Countries
such as South Korea and Taiwan have seen extremely rapid growth in their secondary sectors, while some industries have
declined in the United States and the United Kingdom (especially older, heavier industries such as shipbuilding, textiles and
chemicals). Markets are increasingly dominated by large transnational firms, which are geared towards global production. Jobs
have moved overseas, resulting in the growth of the secondary and tertiary sectors of newly industrialized countries (NICs)
such as India, Taiwan and South Korea and decline in MDCs. The adverse environmental effects of heavy industrial activity
have also affected the Current scale and location of secondary economic activities.
Increases in income, the demand for luxury items, the increase in leisure, travel, and the increasing importance of financial
institutions and transactions, have all been responsible for the dominance of the service sector today. The changes in the
developed world have been referred to as deindustrialization. It marks a shift from the production of goods to the provision of
services. Changes in the industrial structure can be measured by changes in the employment structure. The differences in the
structure of MDCs and Less Developed Countries (LDCs) are shown in Table 5.1.
Key Points
 Industry can be classified according to the type of activities involved. I
 There are five sectors into which economic activities can be divided
– primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary, quinary.
 Primary and tertiary economic activities are dominant in LDCs.
 Secondary, tertiary and higher level economic activities are dominant in MDCs.
 The economic development of a country is linked closely with the level of industrial activity practiced.
Conclusion
Economic activities provide a fundamental source of income and form the basis of development for countries. Dependence
on one sector or another can allow for the classification of a country as developed or developing. Change in economic activity
57
is a dynamic process, and the resultant pattern is often dependent on factors which range from technology available to the
location and amount of physical resources in the country. In MDCS the emphasis is on tertiary and higher sectors of economic
activities, while in LDCs, many countries’ economies depend heavily on primary economic activities such as agriculture and
mining.
Economic activities which fall into the primary, secondary and tertiary sectors will be examined in greater detail in the modules
on Agriculture, Industry and Tourism.
End Test
1. Fishing arid farming are examples of which type of industry?
a) Primary b) Secondary c) Tertiary d) Quaternary
2. Which type of industry provides a service?
a) Primary b) Secondary c) Tertiary d) Quaternary
3. Examples of primary sector industries include all of the following except
a) Forestry b) quarrying c) farm holidays d) horticulture
4. Which of the following is NOT a tertiary sector industry?
a Education b Insurance c Construction d Banking
5. An example of a secondary sector industry is
a) egg production b) oil drilling c) hairdressing d) cheese production
6. Which of the following would mean classifying a firm as a Secondary sector producer?
a) It buys its resources from the primary sector b) It processes raw materials into finished goods
c) It provides services to the secondary sector d) It sells its output to the tertiary sector
7. Which of the following is an example of a primary sector industry?
a) Bus transport b) Butter production c) Coal mining d) House construction
8. To which category of economic activity do trading and financial services belong?
a) Secondary b) Tertiary c) Quaternary d) Quinary
9. a. Describe two (2) characteristics of primary economic activity.
b. Explain the difference between quaternary and quinary activities.
c. Explain 2 reasons for changes in the relative importance of types of economic activity.
End Test Feedback

1. a 2. c 3. c 4. a 5. d 6. b 7. c 8. b
9. a. Any two from:
i. Production is direct from nature.
ii. There is limited/no refinement of product.
iii. A large employer, especially in developing countries but limited employment in developed countries.
b. Quinary activities are higher order economic activities which have evolved from quaternary activities. They involve thinking and
development of ideas which inform quaternary activities. Quaternary activities focus on the processing and dissemination of information
and ideas.
c. i. Changing emphasis of economic development in a country – governments may change their policies with respect to the direction of
development and growth in a country. Depending on the development path a country follows, governments may emphasize one sector
over another in the belief that development will occur more rapidly because those sectors may earn more money from tourism versus
agriculture, for instance.
ii. Reduced availability or depletion of resources may force countries to engage in alternative economic activities. Poor farming
practices may deplete soil resources and reduce yields forcing countries to try to develop other sectors of the economy such as service
industries.
58
6. AGRICULTURE
General Objective
On the completion of this module you should:
 Appreciate the pattern of agricultural activities

 Develop appropriate skills and techniques in Geography
 Apply appropriate investigative and practical techniques.
Specific Objectives
 Explain the factors influencing the type and organisation of agriculture
 Evaluate the effects of agriculture on the environment in MDCs and LDCs
 Evaluate the potential impact of climate change on farming systems
 Account for economic changes in agriculture
 Apply Von Thunen’s model of spatial arrangement of agricultural activity.
Introduction
Many different factors influence the kind of agriculture practised in a particular area. Among these are climate, topography and
soil, water availability, proximity to markets, transportation facilities, land costs, technology and general level of economic
development. Climate, soil, water availability, and topography vary widely throughout the world. This variation brings about a
wide range in the scale of agricultural production from intensive to extensive farming.
Food products include cereals, root crops, and vegetables, while animals ranging from cattle to goats are reared in pastoral
settings. Raw material for agro-processing industries includes sugar to make rum and molasses and cotton for textiles, while
cattle may provide beef as well as hides for leather.
The Spatial organisation of agriculture is examined by Von Thunen who looked at the effect of transportation costs on
agricultural production. His theory produced a model of concentric rings around a centralized market, and introduced
concepts of locational rent, and margins of cultivation and transference. This theory has limited applicability today because of
the changes in technology and transport since it was formulated. Agriculture’s dependence on the physical environment can
often lead to degradation and pollution if sustainable farming is not practised. The effects of agriculture on the environment
will vary according to the scale of the agricultural activity as well as its location; certain environments are more fragile than
others and, therefore, more prone to damage. Effects also vary because of cultural practices.
Content
 Modern farming in the European Union (arable, livestock).
 Traditional and non-traditional agriculture in the Caribbean.
 Factors influencing farming in the Caribbean and the European Union.
 Environmental impact of agriculture and environmental conflicts arising from agriculture in MDCs and LDCs.
 Von Thunen’s model of rural land use.
 Economic change in agriculture.
 Potential impact of climate change on farming systems in LDCs.
Types of Agriculture
Farming may be considered a system, in which inputs are physical (such as climate, soil, land), and human (such as culture and
economic considerations). Agriculture may be classified as intensive or extensive according to the proportion of particular
inputs used to the outputs produced (crops, animals). These inputs include: capital, labour, technology (machinery, pesticides,
and fertilisers) and land area.
59
Extensive agriculture is done on a large scale, whereas intensive farming is small scale. Whether agriculture is classified as
extensive or intensive depends on the relationship between three main factors of production - labour, capital and land area.
Variations in the relationship are illustrated in Figures 6.la and 6.1b.
Figure 6.1a Extensive agriculture Figure 6.1b Extensive agriculture
In extensive agriculture, land is usually the largest component of the farming system. Output is generally low compared to the
land area under cultivation.
Figure 6.1a Intensive agriculture Figure 6.1b Intensive agriculture

In intensive agriculture, unlike extensive, land is the smallest component in the farming system and output is generally high
relative to the land area under cultivation.
The following are examples of the location of the types illustrated in Figures 6.1a, 6.lb and 6.2a and 6.2b:
Extensive agriculture:
(6.1a) The Amazon Basin – shifting cultivation
(6.1b) The Canadian Prairies – Wheat cultivation
Intensive agriculture:
(6.2a) The Ganges valley – rice cultivation
(6.2b) The Netherlands – dairying, horticulture
Subsistence farming occurs when farmers produce food mainly for consumption and there is little or no surplus. Subsistence
farmers often produce the widest range of products, and may include both the growing of crops and the rearing of animals.
This activity is especially common in the Caribbean, where small or peasant farmers engage in subsistence agriculture often on
poor soils and steep slopes. This is a small-scale activity with limited inputs and outputs. It may be considered intensive
farming, where the highest input is labour. Outputs are generally limited in this situation. Commercial farming takes place on a
large scale, and its purpose is to produce crops or animals for sale, whether locally or overseas. Monocropping or monoculture (the
growing of one crop exclusively) is a common feature of commercial agriculture in the Caribbean, especially crops such as
sugar cane or rice. Commercial agriculture is a form of cash ' cropping, and is usually carried out extensively, with commercial
farms covering large land areas.
Shifting cultivation or slash and burn is one other type of farming where farmers shift their farms from one plot to another every
few years. In this type of farming, there is limited input in the form of fertilisers, so farmers rely on the restoration of fertility
during the fallow. This farming type can be considered a sustainable form of agriculture in areas where it does not put undue
pressure on the land; that is, where there is a large land area available plus a low population.
60
Outline the relationship Intensive farming: farm size tends to be small, with high inputs of either capital or labour. Capital intensive farming
between land labour and tends to be found in MDCs, such as market gardening or horticulture in the Netherlands. The high level of capital
capital in available means that technology is easily afforded and made use of, whether this is machinery, pesticides or
fertilisers. Output per capita tends to be high, despite the relatively small size of the farm.
a. Intensive farming
system Labour intensive farming is usually found in areas with large rural populations, such as Bangladesh and China.
b. Extensive farming Agriculture is dominant in the flat delta areas of the large rivers which drain these countries (including The Ganges,
system Brahmaputra and the Yangtze). Although the population is large, output per capita is generally low. Technology use
is limited due to the lack of available capital.
Extensive farming: the farm size is very large (over 100 hectares), and there are low inputs of labour. Capital input
tends to be high as there is major use of technology, especially machinery as well as other inputs such as pesticides
and herbicides. Extensive agriculture is found in the prairie states of the US as well as the central provinces of
Canada. The main crops are wheat, corn and other cereals such as barley and oats.

1. Imagine a farm as a system. Which of the following would not be an INPUT? 1. a
a. Ploughing b. Machinery c. Climate d. Fertilisers
2. b
2. This type of farm specialises in growing crops. 3. d
a. Intensive farm c. Commercial farm
b. Arable farm d. Pastoral farm 4. b
3. This type of farm involves a high level of input to achieve a high yield per hectare (for example rice farming in
Bangladesh).
a. Extensive farming c. Commercial farming
b Subsistence farming d. intensive farming
4. Which of the following best describes subsistence farming?

a Farming on a large scale for profit
b. Farming providing just enough for the farmer's own family
c. Farming involving large amounts of inputs (for example fertilisers)
d. Farming involving few people and large amounts of land
Modern Farming in the European Union

The European Union (EU) is a political and economic union of 27 Countries of Europe. In agriculture, the EU aims to bring
benefits to its members by eliminating tariffs on exports within the EU, acting as a common market for overseas suppliers,
and generally improving the way of life of its citizens.
Farmers represent only 4.7 per cent of the EU’s working population, yet they manage nearly half of the EU’s land area.
Farming has a big influence on Europe’s landscapes and the quality of its environment. There are a number of different crops
produced by EU member countries, given the wide geographical Variation among them. Arable crops include a Wide range of
annual crops of primary importance, such as Wheat, barley, maize, rye, sunflower, peas. They Cover 40 per cent of the
European Union’s utilised agricultural area, and are found in all the Member States. Farming techniques Vary according to the
location of the farms and the climate under which they are grown. Most of the area is intensively farmed, however, with heavy
inputs of capital and technology.
Climate under which they are grown. Most of the area is intensively farmed, however, with heavy inputs of capital and
technology.
Within the EU, farming has been shaped by the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP). This policy Was first introduced in the
19508 in Order to address issues Within European agriculture, including the backwardness of the agricultural sector and the
need for secure food supplies after the Second World War.
The CAP was a protectionist policy which introduced a system of guaranteed prices in order to encourage production by
farmers. The CAP placed levies (taxes) on imported products, and European farmers, therefore, intensified their production to
61
meet demand. Agriculture became much more intensive, specialised and spatially concentrated. The CAP also encouraged
improvements in the quality of the land through the use of fertilisers and better farming methods.
The five basic aims of the CAP were to:
 increase agriculture productivity and improve self-sufficiency
 maintain jobs on the land, preferably in family farms
 improve the standard of living of farmers and farm workers
 stabilise markets
 keep consumer food prices stable and reasonable (Waugh: 2002).
Changes in Farming Practices Due to the Cap
Intensification of production in pastoral farming resulted in factory farming. Animals are raised in confinement at high
densities. This farming type involves the use of selective breeding, artificial insemination and the heavy use of antibiotics. Its
aim is high output at low cost.
In arable farming, intensification saw an increase in the use of artificial fertilisers, soil conditioners, insecticides, pesticides and
higher-yielding disease-resistant crop strains. This coupled with the policy of guaranteed payment for unlimited production
resulted in huge surpluses of production – in the form of butter ‘mountains’ and wine ‘lakes’. These were problematic because
they were produced above world market prices. They could only then be sold at subsidised prices, which would distort world
markets.
There was an increased spatial concentration as areas specialised in different crops. Some areas like France and the United
Kingdom specialised in the production of wheat and barley, while other areas such as the Netherlands grew fruits and
Vegetables or engaged in dairy farming. There was also an increase in the size of fields, hedgerows in the United Kingdom
disappeared as farm sizes grew.
Farms were consolidated and grew in size; this meant that there were fewer small farms, and many more farms were owned by
corporations. They were operated as agribusinesses, with paid labour rather than family as workers. These agribusinesses often
provide food under contract to specific companies. Their size enabled the increased use of machinery such as tractors and
combine harvesters.
Factory farming in developed countries has been subjected to a great deal of criticism. Animal rights lobbyists have criticised
the high stocking densities, the restraints used to prevent the free movement of the animals, the breeding methods used to
produce animals that are suitable for high stocking densities such as the de-beaking of poultry. The environmental costs are
high. Wetlands were drained and this, together With the removal of hedgerows and the ploughing of moorlands, resulted in
loss of biodiversity. Because of the high density of animals, man-made lagoons on industrial farms hold millions of gallons of
liquid waste, from which contaminants can leach into groundwater. The manure is normally sprayed on crops, but often
excessively, leading it to run-off into surface waters. A study released in 1998 by the Natural Resources Defense Council
(NRDC) in the United States claimed that water quality in at least 30 states was threatened by manure from large dairies,
feedlots, chicken farms, and hog farms. The study cited the situation in California’s Central Valley as being particularly acute.
Factory-farmed meat and fish contain an arsenal of unnatural ingredients, among them persistent organic pollutants (POPs),
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), arsenic, hormones and other chemicals. Overuse of antibiotics and other antimicrobials in
livestock and poultry operations, meanwhile, is undermining the range of effective medicines for human use. Nutrients and
bacteria from waste can contaminate waterways, killing fish and shellfish and disturbing aquatic ecosystems.
There are health threats for workers – acute and chronic lung disease, and infections. There were outbreaks of disease in
Britain – mad cow in beef cattle and salmonella in poultry and eggs. Pressure groups demanded reform and emphasised the
need for ethical considerations in the animal rearing industry. There was an increased demand for organic food. The EU is
establishing regulations for maximum stocking densities in the poultry industry, and confinement of sows for most of their
adult lives is being phased out. Factory farming is resource intensive: producing just one calorie of beef takes 33 per cent more
fossil-fuel energy than producing a calorie of potatoes. Eight ounces of beef can require up to 25,000 litres of water, while
enough flour for a loaf of bread in developing countries requires only 550 litres.
62
The CAP was reformed in 2003. The key reforms were as follows:
 A single farm payment for EU farmers, independent from production.
 The payment will be linked to the respect of environmental, food safety, animal and plant health and animal welfare
standards, as well as the requirement to keep all farmland in good agricultural and environmental condition.
 A strengthened rural development policy with more EU money, with new measures to promote the environment, quality
and animal welfare and to help farmers to meet EU production standards starting in 2005.
 A reduction in direct payments for bigger farms to finance the new rural development policy.
 A mechanism for financial discipline to ensure that the farm budget fixed until 2013 is not overshot.
 Revisions to the market policy of the CAP:
 price cuts in the milk sector
 reduction of the monthly increments in the cereals sector by half
 reforms in the rice, durum wheat, nuts, starch potatoes and dried fodder sectors.
EU farms are likely to continue specialising and growing in a bid to maintain income levels. Regardless of current and future
reforms of the CAB this growth will challenge Member States to achieve the objectives of EU environmental legislation for
water and nature protection, and in particular the sustainable use of pesticides. The growing worldwide demand for food and
energy production, will likely lead to further environmental pressures from farming. For example, genetically modified (GM)
crops, all maize, were grown on more than 100,000 ha (250,000 acres) in the EU in 2009 – a 77 per cent increase on 2006.
The CAP of the past offered farmers many systems and regulations designed to ensure that they could produce enough food
for everybody. Nowadays, following many changes to the CAP, farmers are freer to produce what the market demands
without relying on subsidy systems which also influenced their production options. Nowadays, if farmers think that wheat will
be in demand they may plant more wheat; if another crop seems more attractive they may cultivate that. They can use age-old
techniques such as crop rotation, to rest their land, rather than apply intensive production methods. Farmers may now use
more land for production if they wish, instead of being told to leave a part fallow - under the so-called ’set-aside’ system.
Production quotas (for milk for example) that limit how much a farmer can produce are also being progressively removed.
The aim is for farmers to be more responsive to market signals.
Many farmers are diversifying production. They are growing crops such as flax, linseed and specialty crops; providing
accommodation, recreational activities such as war games, golf tournaments and open days for tourists. They are adding value
to farm products such as the production of cheeses and yoghurt.
Case Study: Dairy farming in the Netherlands
This occurs in a diversity of conditions. Soil type and local climate differ from region to region. Cattle graze in polders on clay
and peat, but also on higher areas with sandy soil. More than 80 per cent of the dairy farms are specialist farms. On average,
these have about 50 dairy cows, a milk quota of 350,000 kilograms and 30 hectares under cultivation. The farm work is carried
out by about 1.6 full-time workers, usually the farmer and one or more family members. Dairy farms are principally family
farms. Specialisation means mechanisation and computerisation are made easier and costs are reduced more and more. Small
mixed farms disappear and their land is being taken over by larger more specialised farms. Mechanisation, specialisation and
up scaling contribute to an efficient dairy industry.
Biotechnology may only be used if a special licence has been issued by the Ministry of Agriculture, Nature Management and
Fisheries. Administering hormones to stimulate growth or milk production is prohibited. The great majority of cows are
allowed to graze and move around freely in loose stalls with cubicle housing. Calves may only be housed individually for a
limited number of weeks after birth and are then housed in groups. There are minimum conditions for space and light in
animal housing.
Dutch farmers and horticulturalists are very keen on innovation. Various techniques which are now used world-wide were
developed in the Netherlands and used there first. Examples of these are soil tillage, fodder production, feeds, housing and
milk technology. Computers are used on dairy farms for management and processing purposes. The exchange of data, for
instance the supervision of milk production, milk quality and milk delivery is becoming increasingly computerised.
Organically produced milk is often processed on-farm. Organic dairy farmers aim to achieve equilibrium between farmer,
plant, animal and surroundings. They do not use synthetic fertilisers or chemical pesticides. Organic production and
63
processing are growing rapidly in the Netherlands. The largest Dutch dairy companies in the Netherlands all have §pec1al
factories to process organically produced milk, although some dairy farmers deliver their milk to organic cooperatives which
they have set up themselves.
1. State ONE aim of the Common 1. One aim of the CAP is to:
Agricultural Policy (CAP) of the
Increase agricultural productivity and improve self-sufficiency of European countries. -
European Union (EU).
2. Farmers were able to maximise their production of crops since levies were placed on imported
2. Describe ONE way in which the CAP products. In order to meet demand, farmers had to increase the amount of crops which they
has influenced agriculture in the EU. produced. This was done through - consolidation of farms and intensification of production.
Traditional Agriculture in the Caribbean

Agriculture has played a role in the economic development of the Caribbean for centuries. From large commercial farms to
small peasant farms, crops have been grown for sale and consumption, and animals of various types reared. Agricultural
systems in the region vary widely.
Larger, mechanised farms are found in the larger territories of Guyana, Suriname, Belize and Trinidad, while the smaller
countries of the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS) and Barbados rely mainly on smaller farmers. In Barbados,
sugar cane cultivation is undertaken extensively by larger land owners on plantations, while in the Windward Islands of St
Lucia, Dominica and St Vincent, small farmers produce bananas for export.
Sugar cane
The agrarian structure of a country reflects the patterns of land ownership, management and control over resources. Sugar
cane is 7 grown on plantations which were owned by the wealthy and geared to commercial export crops. They occupied the
best and largest proportion of agricultural land, leaving small farmers to use poorer–quality land. In Jamaica for example, in
1996, 61 per cent of the farms were less than l ha in size, but the 77 per cent of farms under 2 ha occupied only 20 per cent of
the farmland available. The 1,427 farms over 20 ha in size accounted for 54 per cent of all agricultural land. Similarly, in
Barbados in 1989, 117 farms larger than 20 ha occupied 81 per cent of the agricultural land (Potter, Barker, Conway and Klak:
2004).
One of the major crops cultivated on plantations was sugar cane. A modern sugar cane plantation is a large-scale operation,
requiring good, relatively flat land to facilitate mechanised harvesting. Historically, large employers of agricultural labour, sugar
plantations became more industrial and capital intensive at the end of the l9th century, partly because of acute labour
shortages. In countries such as Barbados almost all the agricultural land was devoted to sugar cane production. Such an
investment in monoculture affected the ability of the islands to produce food for local consumption.
Sugar was sold, first to Britain and later to the EU, under special agreements. But Caribbean sugar had to compete with beet
sugar produced in the EU. The cost of production in the Caribbean is so high as to make the region’s sugar uncompetitive. In
2005, the cost of producing one pound of sugar in Brazil was US$7 in Brazil. In Jamaica, it was US$40. The problem stemmed
from outdated machinery and low labour productivity. When the World Trade Organization (WTO) ruled that the EU’s
special arrangements were illegal, Caribbean countries could not compete. In Trinidad and Tobago and St Kitts, sugar
production for export has been phased out.
In Barbados, sugar production has declined drastically; so much so that there are now only two fully operational sugar
factories (Andrews and Portvale) Where there used to be as many as 10 during the peak of production. The amount produced
has also fallen significantly. Sugar production once soared to 204,525 tonnes, from 26 factories – the highest ever recorded,
but in 2008, only 31, 600 tonnes of sugar were produced. Much of the land that was formerly planted in sugar cane is now
occupied by residential properties, roads and industrial sites. Some prime arable land has also been converted to golf courses,
or is slated for this type of development. Agriculture has today given way to export services – tourism and offshore finance.
Monoculture for centuries in Barbados has left farms Vulnerable to pests and diseases, hence the need for large inputs of
pesticides. Growing the same crop over and over can also lead to soil exhaustion, requiring extensive use of fertilisers. There
64
has been a shift to crop rotation on some plantations. Once the main crop has been harvested, other secondary crops may be
planted. These include ground provisions such as sweet potatoes and yams.
Sugar cane in Jamaica is used in the ethanol-gasoline blending programme. The development of sugar cane ethanol is seen as a
growth opportunity for the Caribbean.
Other Commercial Crops - Potential for Growth
There were small farmers who grew sugar cane under contract to plantations, but sugar cane has always been regarded as a
plantation crop. There are other commercial crops that are grown both on large estates and on small farms. Some of these are
grown in small quantities but occupy an extremely important place on the world market. Jamaican coffee is one of these. In
Jamaica, two varieties of coffee are grown. Lowland coffee is grown mainly by small farmers on land below 610 m above sea
level and this accounts for the majority of the island’s output. The world famous Blue Mountain coffee is grown in a very
small region covering about 6,000 ha at elevations of between 610 and 1,524 m in the parishes of Portland, St Andrew and St
Thomas (Figure 6.3). This coffee is grown by both small and large farmers. However, only coffee processed at specified
pulperies is allowed to bear the label of Blue Mountain coffee.
The premium Blue Mountain coffee acquires its characteristics as a result of the elevation of the farms, the volcanic soil, the
cool shaded misty conditions, an ecosystem in which birds keep diseases in Check and frequent rainfall. These conditions
favour the production of the Arabica coffee.
Hurricanes in recent years have resulted in huge
losses. In 2008, coffee exports, Valued at US$32
million were 44 per cent below the Value for
2004.
A less well-known premium product of the
Caribbean is the Trinitario cocoa grown in
Trinidad and Tobago. It is a hybrid of the
Criollo of Central America and the Forestaro of
the Amazon and was produced in Trinidad in
1939. Before the discovery of petroleum, cocoa
was the major export of Trinidad. Production
peaked in 1920 and output has fallen steadily
(Figure 6.4). It is grown by about 2,000 farmers,
90 per cent of whom cultivate smallholdings.
3000
Production
2000
(000 kg)
1000
0
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
Year
Source: Ministry of Agriculture, Trinidad and Tobago

Figure 6.4 Cocoa production, Trinidad and Tobago, 1990–2007
The rest cultivate medium to large estates. The output of a few estates serves a niche market and goes into the production of
world’s finest chocolates and specialty products. Production in one estate in Gran Couva is sold directly to a French
65
manufacturer, Valhrona, the only company that produces vintage chocolate made from beans of one year’s harvest from a
single estate.
The artisan chocolate maker Phallus of France also uses cocoa from the island in the production of the Trinidad brand
chocolate, one of its single bean chocolate products (which fetched a price of almost US$9 for a single bar in 2010). As with
Blue Mountain coffee, demand for the high- quality product exceeds supply, while overall output is declining. There are
recommendations to increase output through higher density planting and increased acreage.
Nutmeg is an important export crop of Grenada. The island produces roughly 23 per cent of the world’s supply and Indonesia
produces most of the rest. The spice is grown inland about 100 m above sea level by both large and small farmers. Output
declined in the 19905 both because of a decline in demand as well as the dismantling of a cartel arrangement with Indonesia.
The hurricane in 2004 destroyed about 60 per cent of production and recovery has been slow because of replanting with
unproductive male trees. Efforts are being made to get young farmers involved in the industry.
West Indian Sea Island Cotton (WISIC) is grown mainly in Jamaica, Barbados, Antigua and Nevis. It is one of the world’s
finest cottons noted for its long fibres that produce soft, fine, silky cloth. Although attempts have been made to produce a
similar quality product elsewhere, the conditions in the islands - sunshine, seasonality of the rainfall, humidity – appear to be
essential ingredients. In the 19705 the islands exported about 450,000 kg to Britain but exports declined because of
competition with cheaper products from the East. It is now popular among high-end manufacturers in Japan, United States,
Switzerland and Italy, the chief markets. In 2008, Jamaica earned about US$480,000 from the export of WISIC. The Caribbean
produces about 1 per cent of world demand. Expansion in production is occurring in the Leeward Islands and Jamaica.
The Caribbean islands possess the conditions for growth that allow them to produce a number of high–quality agricultural
products. Only small quantities are grown for niche markets and the demand within these markets exceeds supply. There is
potential, therefore, for growth in the - agricultural sector and opportunities for value adding.
Small farming
Repeated storms and hurricanes have ravaged banana production in Jamaica and many large estates have curtailed production
for the export market. In the Windward Islands, most of the bananas produced for export are grown by small farmers. Most
small farmers in the Caribbean occupy poor-quality land, either on hillsides or in areas of poor soil. Their '- plots also tend to
be small, either because of fragmentation as a result of inheritance, or because they buy small plots as they come onto the
market. Windward Island farmers also sold bananas on a protected EU market. Protection was eroded when Latin American
farmers successfully took the case to the WTO and many farms went out of business. Some of the farmers now benefit from
Fairtrade activities. Fairtrade is an organisation supported by the charity Oxfam to offer farmers in LDCs an opportunity to
obtain fair returns for their efforts. They convinced customers in the UK to pay a premium to ensure that these small farmers
had an alternative market. Fairtrade cooperatives in the Windward Islands represent about 11 per cent of the remaining
banana farmers. In 2003, Fairtrade shipped roughly 13,000 tonnes of bananas to the UK with more than a half originating in
Dominica. The farmers received premium prices for their bananas, a part of which must be devoted to social and
environmental issues.
Some small farmers are landless, and work plots which they rent rather than own. They may make payments to their landlords
in produce rather than in cash. They are known as sharecroppers. Landless farmers are often placed in an insecure situation,
which can make them reluctant to make any significant improvements to their farms. Small farmers tend to engage in mixed
cropping, where many different crops are grown on the same piece of land at the same time. This traditional system of farming
gives a significant cant advantage over monocropping. Soils are less degraded since different crops have different nutrient
requirements. Crops are also planted at differing heights, allowing the farmer to use the maximum space available. Ground
provisions may share space with pigeon peas and corn, for example. The variety of crops grown also reduces the spread of
pests and disease, reducing the amount of herbicides and pesticides needed, which small farmers cannot readily afford. In the
event of a natural disaster such as a flood or hurricane, total loss of all crops is less likely. Since the land is covered by crops
most of the year, the likelihood of soil erosion is reduced. This is especially important since many small farms are found on
steep hill slopes, especially in the more mountainous islands of the region.
The variety of crops planted ensures food supply throughout the year. Crops tend to be fast growing (including tomatoes,
corn, pigeon peas) and can be harvested after six weeks. Intercropping, where Crops are planted at different levels, make
66
better use of the available land, and the crops, often benefit. Pea trees or fruit trees may provide shade for lower-level faster-
growing crops.
Some small farmers also make use of fallowing, which is a period of time when the soil is rested in order to regain its fertility.
Other traditional practices include crop rotation with legumes, which helps retain soil fertility (by fixing nitrogen in the soil)
and provides year-round food supply. In order to increase food output, small farmers can either bring more land under
production (a limited option in some islands where agricultural land is under pressure from other uses), or intensify farm
inputs (increase labour, capital or technology such as agrochemicals and machinery). Intensification is also difficult due to the
lack of capital for most small farmers.
Non-traditional Agriculture in the Caribbean
New farming techniques and practices are becoming more common in the Caribbean region as a response to rising demand
for agricultural products as well as a growing awareness of the impact of agriculture on the environment. Farmers have
adopted new crops as well as new ways of growing old crops. There has been a shift away from the traditional crops of
bananas and sugar cane to flowers, herbs and vegetables. Non- traditional forms of agriculture include organic farming,
hydroponics, aquaculture, and agro forestry among others.
Aquaculture
Aquaculture is the farming of freshwater and saltwater organisms including fish, molluscs, crustaceans and aquatic plants.
Unlike fishing, aquaculture, also known as aqua farming, implies the cultivation of aquatic populations under controlled
conditions. Particular kinds of aquaculture include alga culture (the production of kelp/seaweed and other algae}, fish farming,
shrimp farming, oyster farming and the growing of cultured pearls. The advantages and disadvantages of this type of farming
are shown in Table 6.1.
Table 6.1 Advantages and disadvantages of aquaculture
Advantages Disadvantages
High efficiency. Needs large inputs of land, feed and water.
High yield in small volume of water. Large waste output.
Can reduce over-harvesting conventional fisheries. Destroys mangrove of forests and estuaries.
Low fuel use. Uses grain to feed some species.
High profits. Dense populations vulnerable to diseases.
Profits not tied to price of oil. Tanks too contaminated to use after about five years.
Jamaica is one of the leaders in fish farming in the region. Jamaica produces tilapia commercially in ponds, and has been
developing the production of carp, oysters and freshwater prawns. Tilapia production is based on red hybrids and the largest
farms, covering just over 20 ha, are found in western and central Jamaica. Small-scale producers, numbering about 300
dominate the industry. There is one farm which produces freshwater prawns, but small farmers have not been successful in
this venture and expansion is constrained by land ownership. Oyster culture is plagued by problems of pollution and theft.
In the Dominican Republic, tilapia, carp, trout, freshwater prawns and marine shrimp are produced. Apart _from Cuba,
aquaculture is unimportant elsewhere in the Caribbean. The potential for the region is, however, considered to be good.
Precipitation exceeds evaporation. In Jamaica many farms depended on piped water but the most successful were those using
river and underground sources. In addition, soil conditions are said to be good as is market potential.
Hydroponics
This is a technique of growing plants without soil. It: involves the cultivation of plants in nutrient-rich water, eliminating the
need for land. Plants may be grown in the water only or with the addition of an inert medium such as perlite, gravel or coir
(dry material from coconut husk). Plants survive in the water medium due to the addition of mineral nutrients, which are then
absorbed by the plants. Hydroponics requires a heavy capital input especially in the initial stages.
Specially formulated hydroponic fertilisers are used, as regular fertilisers lack some of the minerals which plants need. Grow
lights may be used to act as artificial sunlight for plants. There are two main types of hydroponics – solution culture and
67
medium culture. Solution culture uses only a nutrient solution for the roots, while the medium culture uses a solid medium and
is named after the type of medium used. Most reservoirs are built of plastic, but other materials such as concrete, wood and
glass have been used. The containers exclude light in order to prevent algal growth in the solution.
The advantages of hydroponics are:
 low maintenance
 higher crop yields
 controlled growing environment
 balanced nutrition for plants
 elimination of soil-borne diseases and weeds
 prevention of over- and under-watering
 suited for areas where soils are unsuitable for agriculture.
The disadvantages of hydroponics are:
 high initial cost
 constant supervision and maintenance is required
 nutrients cannot be stored, so if pumps fail, plants will die
 crops are more expensive because of the types of technological inputs and knowledge required.
Jamaica, Barbados, Anguilla and Guyana have hydroponics projects. In Anguilla, it is being carried out at the Cuisinart Resort
and Spa, where ' the farm is a part of the resort complex, providing herbs and salad crops to the hotel restaurants. Crops
grown here include lettuce, herbs, tomatoes, peppers and cucumbers as well as
flowers such as lavender and jasmine. There is commercial production of lettuce Activity 6.4
and other vegetables in the parish of Manchester in Jamaica for the tourist Investigate the potential for non-traditional
industry but it is challenged by poor water quality and hurricanes. Barbados has a farming in your country.
fairly long history of experimentation and a farm in the parish of St Thomas
combines hydroponics with traditional farming. There has also been investment in this technology in Guyana.
These are the new techniques in agriculture and their contribution to the economy is quite small.
Some traditional food crops grown by small farmers are now increasingly entering the export market. For example, Jamaica
exports increasing quantities of yam that are in demand in Caribbean communities abroad. Other root crops, ackee, fruits and
herbs ate also exported.
Agro-forestry
Agro-forestry involves planting crops and forests at the same time. Knowledge, careful selection of species and good
management of trees and crops are needed to optimise the production and positive effects within the system and to minimise
negative competitive effects. Agro-forestry systems can be advantageous over conventional agricultural and forest production
methods through increased productivity, economic benefits, social outcomes and the ecological goods and services provided.
Other advantages of agro-forestry are:
 improved year–round production of food and of useful and saleable products
 improved year-round use of labour and resources
 protection and improvement of soil and water resources
 increased efficiency in use of land.
This type of farming has been practiced by small farmers in the Caribbean for many years, although it may be known by
different names - tree home gardens, forest tree gardens, backyard gardens. Multistoried vegetation and a variety of herbaceous
and wood plants are grown together in a very dense pattern. Tree species such as breadfruit, avocados, lychees, soursop and
mangoes are combined with timber and ornamental trees to provide a sustainable land use system. Some livestock may be
included. In Jamaica it is promoted by the Forestry Department and there are several demonstration farms.
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Factors influencing farming
Environmental
These include those aspects of the physical environment such as:
1. Climate (temperature, rainfall amounts and patterns, wind direction and strength).
Caribbean farmers tend to be affected much more significantly by environmental factors than those in the EU. This may
be because environmental factors in the EU tend to be more easily compensated for by technology and available capital
resources. For example, greenhouse technology helps to overcome the limitations of seasonality but energy costs are high.
Farmers in the Caribbean are often small and lacking in these resources.
Climate plays a large role in determining what crops can be grown. In the Caribbean, the tropical climate lends itself to
rapid crop growth, often enabling farmers to plant many crops per year. Hurricanes and other natural hazards such as
floods cause extensive damage to Caribbean farms, and can also be a factor in choosing what crops to grow. Farmers may
opt for crops that grow quickly, or close to the ground, in order to avoid wind damage from storms, or in flood prone
areas they may opt for tree crops instead. The tropical climate encourages the proliferation of pests and weeds, so farmers
must use pesticides and herbicides regularly. High rainfall can result in leaching of the soil, requiring the use of fertilisers.
Periods of drought can result in crop losses if farmers have no additional irrigation.
2. Topography/relief (slope gradient, aspect)
This aspect is important in the EU, where south-facing (adret) slopes receive more sunlight than north-facing (ubac)
slopes in the northern hemisphere. Steep, unstable slopes restrict the planting of crops as soils are thin and, therefore,
relatively infertile, leading to low yields. Steep slopes also limit the use of mechanisation, reducing the possibility of
intensification of production. Small farmers have adapted by terracing the slopes and using contour ploughing to reduce
erosion.
3. Soils (type, depth, fertility, structure)
Larger farms and plantations in the Caribbean are located in flat areas with the best and deepest soils, and farming can be
done on a much greater scale. The most intensive farming is carried out on flat or gently sloping land, for example in the
Netherlands. Volcanic soils especially in the mountainous islands of the Lesser Antilles are very fertile, and many small
farms are located on the slopes of the volcanoes there.
Economic
1. Market
In the EU, farming is largely governed by the policy known as CAP. Once, farmers were paid simply to produce food, but
this is no longer the situation. The CAP is demand driven. It takes consumers’ and taxpayers’ concerns fully into account,
while giving EU farmers the freedom to produce what the market needs. In the past, the more farmers produced the more
they were subsidized. Now, however, the vast majority of aid to farmers is paid independently of how much they
produced.
Caribbean farmers are also market driven, but the markets available in the Caribbean are very small compared to the EU.
Much of the Caribbean food production is, therefore, externally oriented and exported outside of the region. Most of the
cash crops (sugar, rice) are grown to be exported to Europe and other extra-regional markets. Local markets rely more
heavily on small farmers for produce such as mot vegetables, ground provisions and fruits.
2. Technology
Farming in the EU receives large inputs of capital and farms are very heavily mechanized. Farmers are subsidized by their
governments, and are able to make improvements to their farms. In the Caribbean, capital is much more limited, and
farmers do not always have access to the types of machinery and agro-chemicals which they may need. This limits their
ability to produce large quantities of food, or to make best use of the land which they farm.
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3. Transport
Transport also is an economic factor. The types available, the time taken and the cost of moving raw materials and
produce to the market are important. The fragmentation of the Caribbean region has restricted access to markets for some
farmers, especially those producing perishables. In the region, farm produce is moved from island to island mainly by sea.
In the EU, many different transport options are available, each with their associated costs – rail, water, air or road.
Cultural
1. Historical influence
History can play a large role in determining what type of agriculture is carried out. In the Caribbean, most agricultural
production has been for export, since that was the role of the Caribbean on a global scale. They were to produce food for
the colonial countries of Europe. Sugar was required, and sugar cane was therefore grown on a large scale to meet those
needs. This has continued to determine what is grown and by whom on what scale throughout the region. But changing
tastes also affect what is grown. One example of this is the growing demand for organic foods for which many are
prepared to pay higher prices.
2. Labour
Changes in attitudes to farming have also affected the Caribbean agricultural sector. Because of the slave legacy associated
with agriculture, many young people have stayed away from the sector, and labour has been difficult to find especially on
the larger farms and plantations. This has fuelled the use of mechanization on these plantations. It has also affected what
is grown, as crops which are labour intensive, such as cotton, have been abandoned.
3. Land tenure and ownership
Factors such as land tenure and ownership have had an impact on Caribbean agriculture. Where land ownership is in
dispute, farmers are reluctant to take good care of the land, or to plant crops which take a long time to mature. Security of
tenure often means that the farmer is more willing to make investments in the farm, since they will be the ones to benefit.
Where farmers do not own their farms, but are renting or have a share-cropping arrangement, they will often not make
any attempt to maintain soil structure and fertility, since they may have to leave at any time, and want to grow as much as
they can. In more developed areas like the EU, many farmers own their farms, providing incentive for them to become
more efficient and improve the land.
Farms have tended to increase in size in the EU, as small farms have been bought out by larger farms, and consolidated
into huge farms, which may be more economically successful because of intensification of production.
Political
1. Govemment policies
Government policy plays a large role in determining the direction of agriculture. Issues such as subsidies for farmers,
education programmes and access to utilities (especially water for irrigation) are all determined by government policies.
The attitude of governments to agriculture can be positive or negative. Positive attitudes realize the importance of the
sector in employment and in the production of food for local markets as well as the importance of cash crop production.
The EU has taken steps through the CAP to ensure that farmers are encouraged to produce through the provision of
subsidies and incentives for growing food. . In the Caribbean, despite the importance of agriculture as an economic sector,
far more attention has been paid to other economic activities, especially in the tertiary sector. One reason is that a
dependence on agriculture as a primary economic activity is often equated with a lack of development (see Module 10:
Global Disparities in Development). Some Caribbean governments have recognized, however, that agriculture is an
important sector of the economy and in the smaller islands, such as Barbados, where land is in short supply or under
pressure from other uses such as housing and tourism, the government has implemented a land for the landless
programme, where farmers may have access to farmland owned or leased by the government.
2. Trade agreements
Govemment may agree to produce a certain amount of a product in order to satisfy demand in another country. These
quotas are arranged so that farmers can receive a fixed amount in exchange for their produce. Globalization and the free
70
market economy have largely eliminated the quota system, which was preferential for some countries and working to the
disadvantage of others. Bananas from the African, Caribbean and Pacific countries (ACP) were exported to the EU under
a preferential trading arrangement. US-based agribusinesses and Latin American growers protested to the World Trade
Organization (WTO) which ruled that there could be no discrimination based on where food is produced. This means that
the EU could no longer buy ACP bananas preferentially over bananas from anywhere else. Caribbean guaranteed access.to
EU markets (based on trading agreements) was no longer possible. This has had severe repercussions for small farmers in
the Windward Islands, who produced bananas for export.
Environmental Impact of Agriculture
Agriculture results in environmental impacts in both LDCs and MDCs, but it is the scale at which these impacts occur as well
as the particular aspects of the environment which are affected that will differ. LDCs such as Bangladesh and China have
higher rural population densities, and there is more intensive use of the land. Often farms are on more marginal lands so the
land is prone to degradation and erosion. MDCs use more technological inputs such as fertilisers and pesticides, so pollution is
greater from these sources.
Environmental impact of agriculture in MDCs
The concentration of crop production due to the intensive nature of agriculture leads to greater pollution. The spatial
concentration of agriculture will also result in greater environmental pollution including:
 Increased fertilizer use, as well as pesticides coupled with extensive irrigation where needed leads to water pollution
through the run–off of excess agrochemicals into nearby water bodies, for example nitrate leaching in the Po Valley in
Northern Italy.
 Chemicals sprayed onto crops result in air pollution when they are carried astray by winds.
 Factory farming and extensive cattle ranching can produce large amounts of animal waste, which find their way into water
courses, for example livestock farming in the Netherlands.
 Bodies of water experience eutrophication when excess amounts of phosphates from fertilisers are washed into them. The
Norfolk Broads in the UK are affected by this problem, ’with high phosphate levels resulting in fish kills and turbid water.
 Greenhouse gases are generated because of the large herds of cattle raised, as is the situation in the United States where
cattle emit 5.5 million metric tonnes of methane per year (20 per cent of United States methane emissions) (source:
www.epa.gov).
 Loss of natural habitats due to clearing of forests or the filling in of wetlands and ponds as seen across the United States
and Canada.
 Silt lost from agricultural land may choke streams, leading to flooding, hindering navigation, or resulting in flooding of
reservoirs. This is seen especially in grassland areas and the prairies of the United States.
 Compounds used to stimulate growth and flowering in crops may cause problems to other crops, as well as terrestrial flora
and fauna.
 Change in agricultural production is a key factor in the decline of biodiversity, largely due m intensification or the
abandonment of land and traditional farm practices in the EU.
Environmental conflicts arising from agriculture in MDCs
 Genetically modified crops have become a major issue in recent years. Environmentalists are concerned that the increased
use of genetically modified crops will have a negative impact on biodiversity. As monoculture spreads, varieties of the
same crops are lost, along with the ability of crops to withstand diseases and pests.
 The excessive use of agrochemicals which are essential to intensive farming is another environmental issue. Declining
water quality is a major problem, as is habitat destruction and change in organisms and ecosystems due to pollution from
fertilisers and pesticides.
 Agricultural produce is usually grown a long distance away from market, which means that substantial energy must be
expended to get goods to market. The cost of the product does not necessarily reflect the environmental cost of
production and transport to market.
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Environmental impact of agriculture in LDCs
Much of the land used for agriculture in LDCs is already quite vulnerable. Farms may be located in areas of poor soil, or steep
slopes. When poor farming techniques are used in these areas, land degradation often results. The Green Revolution
introduced modern farming techniques to developing countries. New varieties of wheat and maize were produced in Mexico,
which lead to increased yields capable of withstanding strong winds, heavy rains and diseases. Development of enhanced rice
followed in the Philippines. However, the use of Green Revolution crops required the greater application of fertilisers, which
lead to eutrophication and pollution of some water bodies.
 Over cropping can lead to a decline in soil fertility and quality, making it more vulnerable to erosion. This is so especially
in the mountainous regions of the Lesser Antilles.
 The clearing of steep slopes for planting can also lead to soil erosion. The situation in Haiti is particularly severe, with
much of the country having been cleared for cultivation.
 Clearing of forests can destroy natural habitats of wildlife.
 Overuse of groundwater for irrigation can lead to saline intrusion. This would affect the limestone islands such as
Barbados and the Bahamas which depend on groundwater as a major water source.
 Run-off from animal pens can pollute water bodies.
 Large-scale clearing of forests by burning can contribute to global warming.
Environmental conflicts arising from agriculture in LDCs
Farming is a major way of life for many people in LDCs. In countries where agriculture is very important, there are conflicts
between the use of the land for growing crops and other uses, such as housing or tourism. There is conflict between the need
for development and the protection of the environment (see Module 3). In many Caribbean islands, there is not enough local
agricultural production to meet local needs, and food must be imported. There may also be limited land available for
agriculture, especially in the more mountainous islands.
 Resources such as water are also scarce in some countries, and there may be conflicts over the use of water for irrigation
versus domestic usage or for maintaining recreation facilities such as golf courses.
 Loss of habitats due to the clearing of land for agriculture is widespread in LDCs, especially because of high population
pressures. Many animals are displaced from their homes and they may encroach upon farms as a consequence, leading to
conflict between the farmers and animals.
 The natural range of some animals may be reduced by clearance for agriculture resulting in the raiding of farms and the
killing of livestock by predatory animals.
 Population pressure can decrease the size of farms; inheritance laws may subdivide farms to the point of unsustainability,
or there simply may not be enough arable land available for the existing land growing) population. Population pressure can
force people to use marginal lands for cultivation, such as steep slopes or land on the edge of deserts. It may also force the
clearing of forests to cultivate the land, resulting in soil erosion and land degradation. This is clearly seen in Haiti.
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1. Which of the following is not a reason for farmers to begin diversification?
a. Set aside land can be made profitable by non-farming activities
1. c
b. There is increased demand for leisure activities in rural areas
2. b
c. Traditional farming is still profitable
3. d
d. Traditional farming is no longer profitable
4. c
5. b
2. Which one of the following does not cause soil erosion?
a. Monoculture and the use of fertilisers
b. Contour ploughing
c. Removal of hedgerows
d. Overgrazing by animals
3. Which one of the following describes a technique which causes soil erosion?
a. Terracing b. Strip farming c. Contour ploughing d. Deforestation
4. Which word best fits this description – ‘limiting the amount of milk that a farmer can produce’?
a. Subsidies b. Set-aside land c. Quotas d. Diversification
5. This govems farming in all countries in the EU
a. Common Agricultural Tariff
b. Common Agricultural Policy
c. Common Farming Policy
d. Common User Tariff
Von Thunen's model of rural land use

This model of agricultural land use was created by farmer and amateur economist J. H. Von Thunen in 1826. Von Thunen’s
model is based on limiting assumptions including:
 The city is located centrally within an ‘Isolated State’ which is self- sufficient and has no external influences.
 The land of the State is completely flat and has no rivers or mountains to interrupt the terrain, with consistent soil and
climate.
 Farmers in the Isolated State transport their own goods to market via oxcart, across land, directly to the central city.
 Transport costs increase in direct proportion to distance.
 Farmers act to maximise profits.
Von Thunen hypothesised that a pattern of rings around the city would develop (Figure 6.5). He showed four rings of
agricultural activity surrounding the city.
 Dairying and intensive farming occurred in the ring closest to the city. Since vegetables, fruit, milk and other dairy
products must get to market quickly, they would be produced close to the city.
 Timber and firewood would be produced for fuel and building materials in the second zone. Before industrialisation (and
coal power), wood was a very important fuel for heating and cooking. Wood is very heavy and difficult to transport so it
would be located as close to the city as possible.
 The third zone consisted of extensive fields crops such as grains for bread. Since grains last longer than dairy products and
are much lighter than fuel, reducing transport costs, they could be located further from the city.
 Ranching was located in the final ring surrounding the central city. Animals can be raised far from the city because they
are self-transporting. Animals can walk to the central city for sale or for butchering.
 Beyond the fourth ring lay the unoccupied wilderness, which was too great a distance from the central city for any type of
agricultural product.
The Von Thunen model is an excellent illustration of the balance between land cost and transportation costs. As one gets
closer to a city, the price of land increases. The farmers of the Isolated State balance the cost of transportation, land and profit
and produce the most cost-effective product for market.
73
The intensity of production of a particular crop declines with distance from the market since transport costs increase with
distance from the market and the locational rent is therefore lower.
Transport costs vary with the bulkiness and perishability of the product. Product A is costly to transport but has a high market
price and is therefore farmed near the city. Product B sells for less but has lower transport costs. At a certain distance (margin
of transference), B becomes more profitable than A because of its lower transport costs. Where A ceases to be profitable at all
(production cost equals locational rent), the margin of cultivation is reached. Eventually, product C, with still lower transport
costs, becomes the most profitable product.
Von Thunen’s model has some applicability especially at the local
level. Concentric circles of land use do not necessarily exist around
every urban centre, but many areas especially at the local scale do
show patterns which are similar to Von Thunen’s land use model. The
more remote or isolated the area under examination, the more likely it
is to conform to the model. In individual villages and farms the
concept of distance has been more relevant to travel time rather than
transport costs. However, Von Thunen-type patterns are evident in
the immediate neighborhood of large cities and in the hill farms of
southern Italy. As the distance to the marketplace increases, crop
intensification decreases due to transport routes not being well
developed.
At the national or international scale, the limitations of Von Thunen’s
model make it difficult to apply. Changes and improvements in
transport in particular have made many of his observations no longer
valid. Von Thunen’s model greatly oversimplified many real-world
situations, and in many aspects his model is simply out of date.
Advances in technology such as transportation and preservation
methods, changing uses of resources, and new economic policies
among others have all made Von Thunen much less relevant.
Figure 6.5 Von Thunen’s Model
However, the Von Thunen-type pattern was observed by Horvath in
Ethiopia: an area of eucalyptus forest around the city of Addis Ababa (used for fuel and building material); vegetable
cultivation within that forest; and a zone of mixed farming beyond the forest zone. In Uruguay, farming intensity decreases
with movement away from the city. The first zone was assigned to horticulture and truck farming, followed by a zone of
dairying, and, finally, a cereal zone.
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Activity 6.6
1. Based on the data presented in the graph above,

which of the following is true about Crop Y?
a. It has higher transport costs than Crop X
b. It has a wider margin of cultivation than Crop X
c. It is more bulky than Crop X
d. It is more profitable than Crop X at the market
2. What is the margin of transference for Crop X?
a. 10 km c. 32 km
b. 20 km d. 54 km
Feedback
1. B
2. a
Figure 6.6
Potential impact of climate change on farming systems in LDCs

Climate Change projections are based on models and there uncertainties about the levels of change overall and regionally, and
about the response of crops to these changes. However, changes in climate will have an effect on agricultural systems and,
therefore, on food supplies in LDCs. Several changes are projected. Some of these changes are expected to be beneficial and
others harmful (Figure 6.7). The effects will also vary from one region to another.
Source: Rosenzweig and Hillel:www.gcrio.org/CONSEQUENCES/summer95/agriculture.html

Figure 6.7 Possible benefits and drawbacks of climate change
75
 Increase in carbon dioxide emissions: Since pre-industrial times carbon dioxide emissions have increased by one-third.
The current level is 380 ppmv (parts per million by volume} and is increasing. Plants absorb carbon dioxide in the process
of photosynthesis, and with the increase in emissions there will be increase in absorption. Controlled experiments have
shown that the majority of plants will benefit from enhanced carbon dioxide. Yields of rice and soya bean should be
higher. However, many tropical and arid environment crops such as corn, sugar cane, millet, sorghum and succulents
which differ in their chemistry – C4 plants - may not benefit from enhancement. In addition, higher levels of carbon
dioxide may cause plants to close their stomata and so reduce water loss. However, this may be countered by the effect of
higher temperature and changes in the pattern of rainfall.
 Temperature: It is anticipated that there will be in increase in temperature of 1.5–4.5 °C by 2050. This may affect crop
yield m lower latitudes. More carbon dioxide may be released in the; process of respiration; higher temperatures may speed
up the physiological development of plants; temperatures exceed the optimal for growth and these conditions can affect
the yield of Plants. Higher temperatures will encourage the proliferation of plant pests and diseases. Insects such as the
grasshoppers which are responsible for crop losses will reproduce more frequently and this will increase infestation rates.
Livestock may also experience increased infestation.
 Rainfall: Parts of Central America, South Asia, North and South Africa could experience a reduction in rainfall. Inland
areas may experience an increase in aridity. But areas in the path of rain-bearing winds may have increased rainfall.
Moisture stress is harmful to plants and there may be an increasing need for irrigation. A decrease in rainfall and increase
in temperature would result in salinisation and the loss of agricultural land.
 Climate variability: By the end of the 19905, variability was already an important cause of fluctuation in crop production
and food insecurity in LDCs. Extreme events – spells of high temperature, the increase in the severity of tropical cyclones,
drought, etc. disrupt crop production especially in areas close to the limits of tolerance.
 Sea level rise: There is some controversy about the extent of sea level rise that may be expected. This is because of
uncertainties about the contribution of the three main processes responsible for sea level rise – thermal expansion, the
melting of glaciers and the loss from ice sheets. A rise in sea level of 0.1-1 m has been quoted. Already, communities in
low-lying areas are being affected. Crops have been inundated by spring tides in the Caneret Islands off the coast of Papua
New Guinea. Tuvalu in the Pacific is being affected by lowland flooding and salt water intrusion. Spawning grounds are
being destroyed and the effects will increase as temperatures rise.
 High sea temperatures, sea level rise and increasing carbon dioxide absorption will affect marine fisheries. This may lead to
increasing acidification; changes in ocean currents; disruption of breeding patterns and breeding grounds with coral
bleaching.

Changes in the market have Banana production in the Windward Islands has been affected by the removal of preferential quotas from the
had far-reaching effects on EU in the wake of the WTO ruling.
Caribbean agriculture'. Discuss
Access to EU markets was granted to Latin American banana suppliers.
the preceding statement with
reference to either sugar cane Small farmers in the Windward Islands are not able to compete with the more cheaply produced Latin
or bananas. American bananas and production has declined sharply.
Caribbean banana producers are high-cost producers. Diversification has been proposed as an alternative,
but Caribbean economies are too small. Effective diversification would depend on access to suitable land for
crops, infrastructure, markets and access to funding.
Some farmers have tried to tap into the organic market by producing traditional crops using organic methods,
for example Cuba, Dominican Republic and Jamaica.
Dominica started exporting Fair Trade bananas to the EU in 2002; Fair Trade producers receive a premium on
each box of fruit exported, but the demand for Fair Trade bananas is less than the production capabilities of
the Windward Islands.
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Practical exercise: Flow lines
 A flow line map shows movement from one place to another.
 An arrow indicates the direction of movement.
 Flow line maps should be as uncluttered as possible for ease of reading.
 Array widths must be chosen so that they can be clearly seen, but do not cover too much of the map.
Steps in drawing a flow line map:

1 Decide on a scale and draw a key.
2 Look up the value of the first arrow.
3 Draw the width of the arrow in place.
4 Draw an arrowhead to show the direction of movement.
5 Draw the rest of the arrows according to your scale.
6 Add a title to say what the map shows.
Example of Key
Thousand tonnes of bananas
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Table 6.2 shows the volume of banana exports to the UK in 1993.
Table 6.2 Banana exports to the UK
Country Volume of Banana Export (tonnes)
Belize 50,000
Jamaica 65,000
St. Lucia 75,000
Using the instructions given, complete the following assignment.

Add flow lines to the map in Figure 6.8 to represent the volume of exports from the three countries listed in Table 6.2.
Use of topographical maps to examine agricultural activity

Representation of agricultural activity.
 Green and yellow are the two colours most commonly used to show the location and extent of agricultural crops. In cases
where green is predominantly used, small representative symbols distinguish between the types of crops planted, for
example coconut, tobacco, citrus.
 Crops such as rice which require high inputs of water are usually shown with a blue symbol.
 Cultivated versus non-cultivated vegetation can be distinguished by use of additional symbols, for example sawmills, in the
case of forest versus forest plantations.
Factors which influence the location and extent of agricultural activity as given on a topographical map will include:
 Relief - flat or gently sloping land and river valleys are most often used for agriculture, while steep slopes may restrict
certain types of agricultural activity.
 Drainage - agriculture avoids poorly drained areas unless the crop requires high levels of irrigation, for example rice. There
may also be man-made drainage canals shown on the map by straight blue lines. Rivers may be a good source of irrigation
 Communications – there is usually a good rail, mad or river network close to agricultural activity for easy transport of
crops.
 Settlement – where settlement is dense, these areas will often provide the labour force for nearby agriculture. However,
extensive settlement will limit the area available for agriculture.
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Key Points
 Agriculture is a primary economic activity.
 Agriculture is the science, art and business of cultivating soil, producing crops and raising livestock.
 The primary agricultural products consist of crop plants for human food and animal feed and livestock products.
 Agriculture is labour intensive in LDCs but capital intensive in MDCs.
 As new technology is introduced and adopted, environmental factors are less important in influencing agricultural
production patterns.
 Agricultural production is subject to changes in global demands as well as local market conditions.
Conclusion
Many different factors influence the kind of agriculture practised in a particular area. Among these are climate, soil, water
availability, topography, nearness to markets, transportation facilities, land costs and general economic level. Climate, soil,
water availability and topography vary widely throughout the world.
Agriculture is a primary economic activity which forms the basis for many secondary processing industries. Countries which
depend heavily on agriculture tend to be LDCs rather than MDCs. Agriculture in LDCs employs many, but its contribution to
the overall GDP is small. In MDCs, agriculture is very intensive, and requires high inputs, especially of capital and technology.
Agriculture’s importance has declined in many LDCs as development is equated with a movement away from agriculture and
into secondary and tertiary activities, such as construction and tourism. In MDCs, farms have been consolidated and therefore
the overall number of farms has fallen, while output remains high due to high inputs of capital and/or technology, especially
with the development of genetically modified crops (GM crops). The impact of agriculture on the environment is high,
especially in areas where excess fertilizer and pesticides may pollute waterways and fields.
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Examine the effects of Introduction

traditional agriculture
This is an example of how the topic is to be treated or organized.
and non-traditional
agriculture on the For example:
physical environment of There are increasingly toxic effects associated with agriculture, especially traditional agriculture, on the
Caribbean countries physical environment of the Caribbean. Non-traditional methods of farming are becoming more
widespread in an attempt to mitigate these effects on the physical environment. The different forms of
traditional and non– traditional agriculture will be described and located in the Caribbean and their effect
on the physical environment documented.
You should describe the types of traditional and non- traditional agriculture found in the Caribbean in this
section. The effects of each type of agriculture on the physical environment should be clearly described. A
selection of agricultural practices should be identified.
Traditional agriculture:
Subsistence farmers grow food mainly for their families and may move their farms periodically in search
of more fertile lands. Crops grown include: peas, maize, beans and ground provisions. Some animals
may also be reared- Small farmers are forced to use steep slopes t grow their crops which may lead to
soil erosion especially in the more mountainous Windward lslands. The clearing of forests to create
cultivated land (or for fuel) has had catastrophic results especially in Haiti, where soil erosion has been
extensive, with landslides and flooding affecting thousands of people as a result. The grazing of animals
on steep slopes also contributes to heavy soil erosion, especially in the Leeward lslands, where limited
land space results in the use of marginal lands for this practice.
Plantations are large commercial enterprises found throughout the region where extensive coastal plains
are covered by coconut, bananas, sugar cane or rice production under monoculture. Monoculture can
lead to soil exhaustion and the overuse of fertilisers and pesticides, which may make their way into the
water supply. This is so especially in limestone islands which make use of groundwater for domestic and
agricultural use, such as Barbados and the Bahamas.
lntercropping – the practice of planting multiple crops especially by small farmers – makes best use of
limited plots of land; crops interact with each other in positive ways - crops are planted at different
heights, where the taller plant protects the shorter; leguminous crops (beans, peas) are planted alongside
other crops, and return nitrogen to the soil.
Sustainable practices such as crop rotation and fallowing allow the soil to rest and regenerate. When
farmers practise crop rotation, they plant different crops in turn on the same piece of land. This ensures
that the same nutrients are not constantly being removed from the soil. Fallowing rests the soil as farmers
will not put crops on the land, allowing the soil to replenish itself.
Non-traditional agriculture:
In agro-forestry, the ground cover (usually herbs) reduce weeds and prevent erosion. The trees provide
shade and mulch through their fallen leaves. This has been 5uccessful in places such as Jamaica, where
several systems of agro- forestry already exist, some of them highly diversified.
On a typical farm, the upper canopy is formed by timber species, breadfruit trees, and coconut or mango
trees. The lower level includes cash crops like coffee, cocoa, citrus, bananas, ackee and pimento. Agro–
forestry when practised by hillside farmers reduces the rate of soil erosion and increases the overall
productivity of the farms. - The use of green manuring (the growing of legumes to fix and incorporate
nitrogen into the soil) and organic mulches (crop residues left on the soil surface) improve the moisture
retention of the soil, help with weed control and moderate soil temperature.
When crops are grown organically, the use of pesticides and herbicides are eliminated, thereby avoiding
the pollution of water bodies.
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7. INUSTRY
General objective
On completion of this you should appreciate the pattern of industrial activity.
Specific objectives
 Describe the factors affecting the location and development of manufacturing industries
 Apply Weber’s model of industrial location.
 Account for economic changes in industry
 Evaluate the effects of industry on the environment in MDCs and LCDs.
 Use topographic maps to analyze the location of industrial activity.
Introduction
The Industrial Revolution of England in the late 18th century, and law movements in Germany and United States, resulted in a
drastic shift in economic activity. Large factories, initially textiles mills, with specialized labour and machines replaced simpler
cottage production. These factories demanded a workforce and whole towns expanded or were created by the great industrial
expansion. Industrialization fed urbanization and rural to urban migration met the needs of manufacturing regions.
The 19th and 20th centuries brought new inventions and methods of production such as the iron and steel industry and its
many linkages, coal and oil replaced water and wood as fuel and the development of assembly line production of railways and
cars increased output of products. This module will examine the factors which led to the growth of major industrial centers
such as that in northern England, the Ruhr of Germany and north-east (NE) United States. By agglomeration and linkages
these centers grew into large industrial regions. This module will evaluate the usefulness and relevance of Weber 5 theory of
industrial location in understanding the relative importance of factors which influence industrial location.
This module will discuss the changes in the manufacturing sector in late 20th and let centuries. Changes in technology, energy
supplies, globalization and cheap transport have again revolutionized the location of industry. Some areas in the MDCs have
been deindustrialized while others have been re-industrialized. In the LDCs, late industrialization (post-independence of the
mainly former colonies whose raw material had driven industrialization in Europe) created quite different industrial locations,
with a stronger role of government policy. In the late 20th century the NICs (newly industrialized countries) such as South
Korea and Taiwan became significant manufacturing centers as the MDCS moved towards tertiary and quaternary economic
activities.
This module will examine the approaches and challenges faced by Caribbean countries in developing their manufacturing
sector. The Lewis industrialization-by-invitation model resulted in most territories establishing industrial parks, but many have
since closed as a result of competition in the era of globalization. Many Caribbean countries have more recently rejected
manufacturing as an engine of development in favour of tourism (Module 8) and other tertiary and quaternary economic
activities Trinidad and Tobago with its large natural gas reserves is really the only significantly industrialized country in the
English-speaking region.
In many developing countries the informal sector of small-scale entrepreneurs meets the demand for simple, cheap products.
These self-help entrepreneurs use recycled or other cheap materials to produce useable items. They are located in open areas,
tents or simply on the sidewalk. They represent significant areas of employment in some LDCs, including the Caribbean.
Manufacturing industries in both MDCs and LDCs have a great impact on the environment. The processing of large amounts
of raw materials results in problems of resource depletion, waste disposal and pollution, affecting all aspects of the
environment.
Noxious emissions of gases and particulate matter make the air and rain (acid) toxic to living organisms (Module 1). Improper
disposal of waste materials and hazardous pollutants damage the marine and aquatic habitats of many areas and threaten
human water supplies. Large areas of land have been made unusable by contaminants like nuclear waste, slag heaps and the
solid waste of industries.
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Content
 Factors influencing development and change in a major MDC industrial region and the relevance of Weber’s model of
industrial location.
 Case study of industrial change in an LDC.
 Approaches to and problems of industrial development in the
 Caribbean.
 Economic and social characteristics of the informal sector.
 Environmental impact of industrial development in MDCs and LDCs.
Factors Influencing Industrial Location and the Relevance of Weber
There are many different types of manufacturing industries. They may be classified according to:
 size, which can be a real extent or number of employees - large/small
 processing unit weight - heavy/light
 relative transport costs - raw material/market oriented
 investment - capital/labour intensive.
 Manufacturing includes all processing activity whether of direct raw materials or of semi-finished materials.
Traditional factors
The mam factors which traditionally have influenced industrial location are:
1. Raw materials - these are the materials to be convened mm more useful products they may be semi-finished], notably iron
ore for steel and agricultural products, for example cotton and flax.
2. Energy - originally water and wood were used to drive the machines but later coal, Oil and natural gas were utilized. More
recently these are of less importance with ubiquitous electricity networks.
3. Market - the consumers of the products and their purchasing power. Some bulky products were located near to their
market to reduce transport costs.
4. Transport - to move the raw materials and finished products.
Originally canals and rivers were important but were replaced by other modes - road, railway, air.
The relative importance of these four factors determined to a large extent the development of the major industrial regions of
the MDCs.
In particular, the combination of coal and iron on: in adjacent regions led to development of industrial areas such as those of
northern England and NE United States. Other factors such as the availability of land, entrepreneur preference, government
policy were significant in some areas.
Weber’s theory of industrial location
Alfred Weber (1909) was one of the first theorists to examine the interaction of various factors in producing the least cost
location of an industry. At that time the iron and steel industry and other heavy manufacturing activities dominated the major
industrial regions. These products lost weight in processing. As in all models some assumptions were made. He proposed an
isolated state, with uniform transport, climate and socio cultural conditions. This is the isotrophic assumption; labour is
immobile but available; there is a single market whose location is known; raw materials are concentrated at specific points;
transportation costs reflect the weight of items and distance; economic man would have perfect knowledge to guide his
rational decision making in the context of perfect competition.
Some terms are critical to understanding his theory. These remain in popular use:
 Material index (MI) - defined as the proportion between the total weight of raw materials as compared to that of the
finished product.

The formula is:

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 Distribution of raw materials — he referred to these as being ubiquitous - found everywhere and evenly distributed;
while others were localized and restricted to a limited number of locations.
 Transport costs were a function of the mass of raw material and distance in tonnes/km.
 Agglomeration is the clustering of activities and people for mutual advantage.
According to Weber, the optimum location could be found by minimizing three basic costs-transport, labour and
agglomeration.
Raw material was said to be gross if MI was greater than 1. These were weight-losing materials such as metal extraction. Since
it would be expensive to take the raw materials to be processed at the market, these are material oriented industries. If the MI
was exactly 1, the raw material did not gain or lose weight in production and it was referred to as pure. Manufacturing could
take place either at the market or at the source of the raw material. If MI was less than 1 the raw material would gain weight in
production. It may gain weight because of the addition of a ubiquitous material such as water. In the making of soft drinks, for
example, water is added and this, together with the bottle, adds weight. Such industries are market oriented.
According to Weber, transport costs are a mayor consideration in the location of industries and the optimum location could
be obtained by minimizing the cost of transporting both the raw materials to the processing plant and the finished product to
the market. The least transport cost was derived by means of a locational triangle (Figure 7.1) representing two sources of raw
materials and a market, each of which was exerting a pull. The object was to find the optimum point for the production
process. To show the spatial distribution of transport costs Weber drew contours of equal costs of transporting the raw
materials and the finished product. Isotims were lines joining all places with equal costs for moving either raw materials or the
products. Isodapanes were lines joining places with equal total transport costs.
However, Weber acknowledged that depending on labour and agglomeration costs, a location based on transport costs alone
may not be the optimum location. He plotted isodapanes to show the transport costs involved in moving to areas of cheaper
or more efficient labour. If cheaper labour costs lay within the area of a critical isodapane then labour would be the main
determinant of production. A critical isodapane was also used to determine the benefits of agglomeration to particular firms.
Activity 7.1
Study Figure 7.1 which shows the locational triangle of Weber’s Least Cost Location Model 2. Point X is location of
and answer the following questions.
a. raw material 2
b. least cost
c. market location
d. maximum transport
3. The raw material in the diagram would
have a material index
a. equal to one
b. greater than one
c. less than one
Figure 7.1 Weber’s least cost location model d. negative one
1. Point Y is the location of the
a. raw material 2 Feedback
b. cheap labour 1. c
c. market 2. b
d. transport 3. b
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In the century since Weber proposed his theory, many changes in technology and transport have affected the relevance of his
model.
Some of the limitations are:
 Transport cost is no longer directly proportional to distance nor is it equal for given weights of materials.
 Transport costs are rarely the basis of locational decisions (<10 percent of cost). There are improved modes and
reduced costs.
 Electricity is ubiquitous.
 Labour is mobile.
 New technology of production and new types of industries which an footloose.
 There may be many sites of equal profitability instead of one least cost location (LCL).
 With globalization and the rise of multinational corporations (MNCs), single firms are not making decisions.
 Revenue aspects were neglected by the model.
 Agglomeration/deglomeration, that is, relations between companies creates advantages that are more important than
his non-competitive model.
 Some factors held constant are now very important - government policies such as enterprise zones (EZs), labour cost
and union activity.
But Weber’s systematic approach to least cost location as a spatial analysis of the relative importance of different factors is
useful even in the modern complex world. It may be applied globally across national boundaries where each factor applies in a
different country. Isotims may be plotted across national boundaries and isodapanes calculated to show least cost locations in
different countries.
Factors Influencing Industrial Development and Change in a Major Industrial Region in MDC
North East United States
The factors mentioned above, such as raw material and energy, were the main ones initiating the development of NE United
States. Iron and steel as elsewhere was at the core of linked industries such as shipbuilding, car assembly and chemicals. Figure
7.2 shows the great industrial heartland from earliest beginnings in textiles of Boston, southwards to the large ports of New
York and Washington DC, Philadelphia, Baltimore and westwards to Cleveland, Detroit and Chicago.
Raw materials. Most large industrial regions developed first on the basis of available coal and iron ore - they were material
oriented. In the NE United States, Appalachian coalfields, later petroleum fields and iron ore from the Lake Superior shores
fed the industrial centers of Pennsylvania. Towns such as Pittsburg developed close to the coalfields. Later Chicago, a lake
port, developed ago-processing; Detroit, home to Fords car industry, attracted linked industries and the industrial region
expanded.
Transport. Cheap water transport on the Great Lakes, St Lawrence, Ohio and Hudson rivers and canals allowed movement
of the bulky raw materials from the interior to the coast. Atlantic ports such as New York and Baltimore were very important
trans-shipment points.
Labour. The eastern seaboard of United States was the main point of entry for European migrants. There was a ready labour
force bringing skills from the industrialized Europe. This area also has some of the oldest universities in the country making
highly skilled workers available.
Market. The large urban centers with their increasing population of both internal and external migrants seeking industrial jobs
were also the ready market or some goods and services. Some goods were exported across the Atlantic via the large ports.
Capital/entrepreneurs. Private inventors and risk takers invested and profited from industry. They located their factories
where they could afford or personal reasons.
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Figure 7.2 Industrial Regions in NE USA
Development
Linkages between industries cause industrial areas to grow a linkages refer to the links between industries; for example, steel
raw material or many other industries. There are many types of linkages such as:
Forward linkages between steel industry and car manufacturers, ship building and later aircraft making (that is, in the direction
of the finished product); Backward linkages with industries producing the component parts or semi-finished raw materials, for
example textile, buttons/thread for the garment industry (that is, in the direction of the raw material).
Vertical linkages where refining industries would be linked to shaping an end product, for example pulp to newsprint.
Horizontal linkages (mum-origin) refer to shared product from assembled parts, such as brakes, tyres, radiators for the
automobile industry.
Diagonal linkages (mum-destination) arise when the product is shared by subsequent industries, for example nuts and bolts
used by cars, clocks and appliances.
These processes resulted in locational leaders of industry – heavy engineering, chemicals, oil refining, transport manufacturing
(ships, aircraft, rail, automobiles). This lead to agglomeration as industries, minimized costs by sharing a range of services and
using existing infrastructure. Economies of scale resulted in very large factories with assembly lines turning out large quantities at
low unit costs. Geographical inertia also played a role in the development of the region. Once an industry is established it tends
not to move even after the rural factors are no longer applicable. Since the infrastructure, it is easier to stay than to move.
There was a spatial division of labour where specialized skills were concentrated in specific areas.
Change factors
Manufacturing in the late 20th century and early let century is less important than tertiary and quaternary activities in most
MDCs, both in terms of employment and its contribution to GDP. Most manufacturing industries have experienced changes
in production methods and ownership. Government policy resulted in major changes in the location of industry by
encouraging the development of new areas. Some industries developed outside of NE United States such as in the ‘sunbelt’:
California, Florida, Texas and Arizona. But in the NE itself there were changes in the types of industry and a shift in location
of industries. Decentralization from the NE United States was the result of the growth of new centers of innovation, for
example Silicon valley, California; movement of population to the warmer climates; exploitation of new raw materials in these
areas and specific advantages for industries such as aerospace with lower space heating costs. The NE also fell prey to the
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diseconomies of scale, that is, it grew to such an extent that its size created problems, such as traffic congestion, that
discouraged further expansion.
Change in traditional factors
 Raw material. As more efficient methods developed less material was required per unit. Exhaustion of some
materials has lead to imported raw materials and a shift to tidewater port location at the break of bulk point. There is
increasing vertical integration of production — for example, modern steel mills making steel and finished products on
the same site.
 Energy. Coalfields declined and were replaced by electricity fed by gas pipelines, hydroelectric power and nuclear
stations. Companies could therefore be ‘footloose’ and not tied to their energy source location.
 Transport. Large bulk carriers such as containers and oil tankers have made transport a less important locational
factor than in Weber’s time.
 Labor. Workers are now very mobile and more highly skilled.
 Markets. These are foreign as well as local.
Deindustrialization
The term deindustrialization has been used to describe the flight of jobs from the manufacturing to the service sector in
MDCs. It is a very complex process of economic and social change. The focus has been on changes in the level of
employment because it is one of the most obvious measures of the size of the manufacturing sector. In the European Union,
employment in manufacturing declined by about 30 per cent in the last three decades of the 20th century. In the United States,
it peaked in 2000.
The interpretation of the decline has been the subject of intense debate. Some like Saeger (1997) argue that deindustrialization
is not necessarily a negative phenomenon but a consequence of industrial maturity in developed economies. Economists say
that there is a link between economic maturity and the structure of employment. The trend of employment in manufacturing
takes the form of an inverted U-shaped curve which is demonstrated in Figure 7.3 for OECD countries. The decline in
employment in manufacturing is represented as a natural course of economic development and is occurring in Japan,
Singapore and Taiwan.
Figure 7.3 Manufacturing employment and per capita GDP (data from 1970,
1975, 1980, 1985 and 1990 for OECD countries
A similar change in the structure of
employment occurred in the industrial stage of
development. There was an increase in
employment in manufacturing and a decline in
agriculture because as income rises a smaller
proportion is spent on food and more on
manufactured goods. In addition,
technological developments in agriculture
made it possible to grow more food using
fewer people. Similarly, technological
developments in manufacturing have brought
about an increase in labour productivity while
reducing the demand for labour. In the EU,
for example, while employment declined by 30
per cent, productivity in the manufacturing sector increased by 50 per cent. A smaller number of people are producing a larger
volume of manufactured goods. With development, consumer demand shifts from manufactured goods towards services.
Services represent superior goods and there is an increase in demand as per capita income increases. This, together with the
government provision of public sector services, stimulated the growth of the service sector.
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Deindustrialization has also been described as a ‘statistical illusion’. It reflects the reallocation of labour from manufacturing to
the service sector. Many manufacturing enterprises have contracted out robs traditionally performed in-house to specialist
services, thereby boosting employment in the service sector.
Deindustrialization resulting from these processes has been referred to as positive deindustrialization, a symptom of economic
success in developed economies.
Globalization and the increased integration of the economies of MDCs and LDCS have also been responsible for the loss or
jobs in MDCs. Multinational corporations have reallocated the labour - intensive assembly end of the manufacturing process
to countries with cheaper, unskilled labour. In addition, increased competition from countries with low labour costs have
caused some companies in MDCs to reduce their labour force or to close.
Much of the gloom in countries such as the United States resulted in the loss of jobs and output in traditional centers in the
north-east. However, the biggest reduction has occurred among low-skill workers. High-skill employment in manufacturing
has been growing and this has been accompanied by losses in the traditional centers and growth in the south and west.
The New International Division of Labour (NIDL)
There have been several changes in the pattern of world production caused by:
 Trade liberalization or the removal of barriers such as tariffs and quotas, which formerly prevented the free flow of
goods.
 The role of multinational (transnational) corporations, organizations which have their headquarters in the home
country in an MDC but manage production or deliver services through subsidiaries in several countries – Pepsi,
Microsoft, Reebok, Shell/Royal Dutch. These are powerful corporations, many with annual earnings that are tariff
than those of some of the LDCs in which they have their subsidiaries. Many governments compete for their
investment, giving them tax breaks and incentives.
 Improvements in communication and transportation.
These developments allow different production stages to be carried out in geographically separated areas or countries. Firms
organize their activities in what is referred to as a global value chain in order to:
 take advantage of lower production costs
 tap into the skills and expertise in developing economies in countries in Asia for example
 boost falling profits in saturated domestic markets
 speed up entry in emerging markets that are growing quickly
 overcome regulations that prohibit activities domestically
 overcome labour shortage in the domestic market with restrictions on immigration.
Multinational corporations are responsible for this global reallocation of production. Production is no longer confined to
national economies but has spread to LDCs and to countries in Eastern Europe (the Czech Republic, Romania, Ukraine, and
Bulgaria) where the fall of communism has made these locations attractive.
Outsourcing and offshoring
Films in MDCs outsource and offshore their production. Outsourcing is the shedding of core functions to external providers
in the home county and abroad. Offshoring is international relocation. The term ‘nearshoring’ is sometimes used to refer to
offshoring in neighboring countries such as between the United States and Canada and Mexico. Manufacturing processes as
well as services are hired out to other companies or subsidiaries that may be able to perform them more cheaply or efficiently.
Initially, offshoring was focused on the contracting out of customer services, but it now includes a broader range of activities
such as engineering and software production.
These are the practices that have raised concerns over the loss of jobs in MDCs. However, proponents say that there are long-
term advantages to MDCs. They increase earnings and domestic consumption in LDCs which will foster imports from MDCs.
They increase production and reduce costs in MDCs and therefore raise living standards. In the United States, companies
would make savings on federal taxes for employees and so reduce the cost of operation. When firms relocate inefficient
processes external providers the firm could focus on areas with competitive advantage and expand output.
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Activity 7.2
1. Name any three inputs in an industrial system‘
2. Discuss three causes of change in a named major industrial region in an MDC.
Feedback
1. Manufacturing systems require inputs such as raw materials, labour and capital.
2. Three causes of change in the industrial region of NE United States are diseconomies of scale, new centers of innovation and change to
tertiary economic activities, Diseconomies of scale that are beyond a certain size have a negative effect such as traffic congestion, high
wages and lack of space. New centers of inventions and ideas developed outside of NE United States notably in California and Arizona. This
attracted industries to these ‘sunbelt' locations. Finally the NE United States declined and became deindustrialized as the economy became
more service oriented. Most new activity was concerned with research and development and technology rather than the manufacture of
goods.
Industrial Change in LDCs

It is very difficult to generalize about industrialization in LDCs. The process varies from the large industrial regions of India,
Mexico and Brazil to the small specialised regions of Trinidad and Tobago and includes Venezuela, Nigeria and the newly
industrialiser countries (NICs) of Taiwan, Singapore and Hong Kong. The LDCs became 'industrialized long after most of the
major industrial regions of the MDCs. Most have limited raw materials and small markets (in terms of purchasing power -
large populations do not necessarily translate into large markets). The farmers which drove the growth of mayor industrial
regions in the developed world are no longer applicable. Iron and steel are produced by integrated mills, globalization and
MNCs dwarf the policies of individual countries, and competition in an age of trade liberalization is fierce. Generally some
LDCs have significant manufacturing regions contributing about 25 per cent of GDP and employing large numbers. These
countries are mainly producing for export, although Brazil and Mexico also have large home markets. T
The NICs of South East Asia are among the most successful industrialiser LDCs. Although poor in raw materials and energy
they are well located on important trade routes between Asia and Europe. Countries such as Taiwan, South Korea, Singapore
and Hong Kong all have increasing levels of industrial employment and a rising share in world exports. Government policies
of import substitution industrialisation incentives and industrial parks helped to start the process. Improved infrastructure and
educational systems help w create conditions for industrialisation. Later a strong financial and commercial sector encouraged
further Japanese and US investment.
Activity 7.3
1. For any selected LDC, discuss the factors which have lead to increasing industrialisation
2. Identify the types and location of the main industries.
Feedback
For the country chosen you should have:
1. Created a map to show the main industrial region and factors influencing the location (raw materials, energy, transport,
labour, market).
2. Discussed the factors leading to the development and then change in the country. Changes could include the type of
company/product, location. market and the role of MNCs.
Approaches to and Problems of industrial Development in the Caribbean

The Caribbean countries were mainly producers of raw materials for the industries of the European colonizers. In many cases
the colonies were forbidden by law from processing their raw materials but were dependent on the purchase of finished goods
from overseas. (This remains in the enhanced demand for even poor-quality goods from foreign in preference to locally
produced items.) According to Potter et al. (2004, p515), the Caribbean spent 400 years as a globalized, peripheral region. This
reputation as an area of low-skilled, cheap labour continued after independence. It is the basis of the location of modern
export processing zones (EPZs) and data processing centers. The Caribbean is not well endowed with natural resources such
as coal and iron ore to fuel a major industrial region as in the MDCs of the past. Trinidad and Tobago’s oil and natural gas,
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Jamaica’s and Guyana’s bauxite are the main mineral resources. Only limited processing is possible especially for bauxite as a
result of high energy costs.
Approaches
Some independence there have been many approaches to industrialisation in the Caribbean:
1. The Lewis (1950) industrialisation-by-invitation model depended heavily on making countries attractive to foreign
investors. He argued that the volume of trade prevented Caribbean countries from exporting on a competitive basis.
Caribbean countries should encourage foreign investment to assist in the development of ' managerial, entrepreneurial,
and administrative skills. He advised on the creation of a Customs Union in the Caribbean; the creation of a special agency
– an Industrial Development Corporation - to drive the industrial process and the provision of special incentives to
foreign investors.
2. Operation Bootstrap of the Puerto Rico model (1947). This was based on heavy corporate tax exemptions on income
generated in the country (interestingly a 10-year phase out of this exemption began in l 996).
3. About the same time the UN Economic Commission for Latin America (ECLA) suggested import substitution industries.
The purpose was to replace manufactured imports with domestic substitutes. In this way, Caribbean countries would
reduce the dependence on imported goods, save foreign exchange and increase employment. The policy was supported by
tax incentives, restrictions on imports and other protectionist measures. Industrial estates were provided and sprang up
around many Caribbean towns.
4. Export Processing Zones (EPZs) have been developed more recently to attract foreign investment in labour intensive
manufacturing. These state-designated ‘free zones’ operate outside of local regulations. Imported raw materials and
exported products have little impact on national manufacturing sectors.
These have all had limited success in increasing the industrial activity in the region. Apart from Trinidad and Tobago,
manufacturing industries employ less than 20 per cent of the labour force in most Caribbean countries (Module 5).
Problems
None of the approaches described above have resulted in large varied manufacturing regions in the Caribbean. The Puerto
Rican model has worked for Puerto Rico with its special relationship to United States but not elsewhere in the region.
Protection encouraged inefficient, low- quality, and high-cost production. There was heavy dependence on imported raw
materials and machinery and because it was capital intensive, it made little contribution to the unemployment problem.
Companies in the EPZs in Jamaica relocated because of high costs and security problems. Manufacturing industries have
developed in Trinidad and Tobago based on large oil/natural gas reserves and govemment policy to use them for iron and
steel mills and other heavy industries. Throughout the region manufacturing industries remain low wage enclaves having little
impact on the local economies. Most governments have turned to tourism and other tertiary activities in the face of the
modern global marketplace. The decline is influenced by such factors as:
 Globalization/trade liberalization resulting in intense competition.
 Expensive production cost of small-scale industries.
 Low or inconsistent quality.
 Lack of capital.
 Social demands of young growing populations.
 The high cost of providing security in some countries.
Case study Trinidad and Tobago
Industrialisation in Trinidad and Tobago is unusual among LDCs with spatially small industrial regions in that it has developed
heavy industries, after light industries. Most goods arc produced mainly for an export market. It also has faced the decline of
manufacturing to just 28 per cent of labour force even as it continues to expand the range of industries. Most modern
industries are not labour intensive but capital intensive using machines in all aspects of the production. This module will
discuss industrialisation in Trinidad, since Tobago is not significantly industrialized with tourism as its main employer. This
may change in the future as large natural gas resources are piped onshore in Tobago’s north and exported to Trinidad.
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Industrial activity in Trinidad has always been based on its:
Energy sources – oil and natural gas resources. At independence, there were limited areas of industrial activity near Port of
Spain. The oil industry is still operated by the government as well as Amoco (MNC).
Local raw materials – a few agro-industries and food processing factories were present, for example citrus and coconut
growers’ cooperatives; and in the south of the country, the traditional sugar factories such as Usine Ste Madeline, at Pointe-a-
Pierre the MNC. Texaco had its oil refinery and Federation Chemical, its urea plant. Most of the goods were produced for
export to benefit its British colonial owners.
Govemment policy – after independence, as in the nest of the Caribbean, the state needed to provide jobs for the increasing
population. The Lewis industrialisation-by-invitation model which in some ways continues with its emphasis on foreign
investment resulted in more than l4 industrial estates being established west and east of Port-of-Spain. These were mainly
along the main highways and oent.ms of population. These estates offered factory shells and other incentives to foreign
companies. Initially most goods were for export and later some import-substitution ‘screwdriver’ assembly plants were
developed for the domestic market. These were mainly light industries lead by garments (and later a textile mill); soft drinks/
breweries; pharmaceuticals; short-lived car assembly and a variety of other light industries. Some industries left after the l0-year
incentive period but others have remained.
In the late 19705 government decided to create a new large industrial area at Point Lisas to house an iron and steel plant
served by its own port and electricity generating station. This was based on the discovery of large reserves of natural gas. All
other raw materials are imported. Point Lisas is close to San Fernando and was developed on mainly reclaimed land. Although
it was initially state owned by the Iron and Steel Company of Trinidad and Tobago (ISCOTT), it was later sold after problems
of management and marketing rendered it unprofitable. It is now owned by the giant ArcelorMittal the world’s largest steel
producer employing 600,000 in 60 countries.
Expansion of a major six-lane highway between Port of Spain and San Fernando enhanced the attractiveness of this industrial
area which now houses a large methanol factory, a urea plant, petrochemical ' industries as well as the iron and steel plant. An
aluminum smelter is planned for further south but has been delayed by environmental concerns.
Activity 7.4
Explain TWO problems or challenges of industrial growth in the Caribbean
Feedback
One problem to industrial growth in the Caribbean is the lack of large raw material resources on which to base the industries. Imported raw
materials lead to high-cost products.
A second problem is small size and also small market. Most manufactured goods can be imported more cheaply than they can be produced
locally as a result of little economies of scale.
The Informal Sector

Most countries, both MDCs and LDCs have an informal sector. These comprise workers who are not regulated or involved in
the formal economy because of the failure of the economic system to create productive employment. In many developing
countries the informal sector employs up to 60 per cent of the labour force. They are a heterogeneous group comprising small
and medium-sized operations. A large number of workers in this sector are women working on the streets or from their
homes – street vendors, dressmakers, confectionery makers, crafts workers, transport operators, among others. They operate
without government assistance or regulation. Some are attracted to the informal sector to avoid govemment regulations A
Some enterprises may be illegal and may employ child labour informal industry is characterized by:
 small-scale family operation
 little capital, few tools
 labor-intensive operations
 the use of cheap recycled material
 no fixed price for goods
 irregular hours and uncertain returns.
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These activities have the advantage of providing subsistence for the most vulnerable in the society. The profit is used within
the area to purchase ’food and other items. Often the level of technology is appropriate to the local conditions and hence
sustainable. However, these are usually lowly paid in precarious, sometimes dangerous, conditions. Many have advocated their
integration into the formal system by giving support to micro enterprises - access to credit and training.
1. Define the informal sector. 1. The informal sector by its very nature is difficult to define.
2. Describe two characteristics of the informal sector. Generally it would be unregulated. It is mainly small-scale family
3. Discuss two reasons for the growth of the informal operations, with little capital and few tools. .
sector in LDCs. 2. Two characteristics of the informal sector are it is labour intensive
and operates during irregular hours and changing location.
3. One reason for the growth of the informal sector in LDCs is
poverty. Unemployed persons who are unskilled to join the formal
labour force may turn to informal activities for survival. A second
reason may be to avoid excessive regulation by government.
Some entrepreneurs may wish to operate outside repressive
government control.
Environmental Impact of Industry in MDCs and LDCs

Changing materials to more useable forms will produce waste and consume energy. In addition, the attraction of large
population in these regions generates domestic impacts. All aspects of the environment: air, land and water, are impacted by
industrialisation. Lack of regulation in LDCs has made them vulnerable as they seek employment for growing populations.
Resource use: all raw-material extraction whether mining or drilling involves disruption of natural ecosystems. Clearing of
forest results in the loss of habitats. For example, the open-cast surface bauxite mines of Guyana and Jamaica severely disturb
the natural environment.
Air pollution: Many types of manufacturing have chimneys dispersing airborne material. Air pollution and global warming
were discussed in Module l, so the focus here will be on land and water pollution. Accidents like Bhopal, India, killed many
persons as the air filled with toxic gases.
Water pollution: Both surface and groundwater, ocean and seas are affected. Industries release organic materials, petroleum
products, metals and acids into water systems. For example, rivers in Guyana have been polluted by cyanide spills in the
process of mining gold. In Trinidad, polluting effluent from the Point Lisas complex flows into the semi- enclosed Gulf of
Paria. Offshore rigs and tankers have polluted the east coast of the country with spills and fires.
Land pollution: The disposal of solid waste by manufacturing industries has a very negative impact on the environment.
Landfills occupy increasing spaces. Some MDCs export their waste to LDCs. Nuclear accidents have laid waste large areas, for
example Chernobyl in Russia. In Jamaica, red mud lakes from the processing of bauxite result in pollution of air and
groundwater.
Key Points
 Manufacturing industries are important economic activities in most countries.
 Industrial change has led to decline in employment in manufacturing in MDCs, and shifts in industrial location.
 Modem factors have increased industrialisation in some LDCs.
 In LDCs small-scale industrial activities take place outside the formal economy creating an informal sector
 Caribbean countries, with the exception of Trinidad and Tobago, have not successfully developed significant
manufacturing sectors.
 Industrial activity in MDCs and LDCs has a great impact on the environment.
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Conclusion
In most countries of the world the change from predominantly primary economic activities (agriculture, mining} to the
secondary activities of manufacturing marks a stage in their development. Most MDCs have passed through that stage and
gone on to tertiarisation and the quaternary sectors of services, research and technology. They have de-industrialized, while the
LDCs have been struggling to industrialize in an open global market of trade liberalization and large MNCs. The main NIC
producers of finished goods are now in South East Asia, China, India, Mexico and Brazil
Except for Trinidad and Tobago, most of the Caribbean has failed to industrialize successfully and has changed directly from
failing agriculture to the tertiary activities of tourism, offshore financial activities and data processing to fuel its development.
Most countries but notably LDCs have an informal sector of workers which is not regulated. The workers are self-supporting
and work at home and in open spaces. They are usually small, family oriented, often operated by women who smuggle to
support their families. In the Caribbean these would be the ’suitcase traders’, the small repair shops, crafts persons, hair
braiders and highway peddlers.
Most manufacturing industries have a severe impact on the environment. Some MDCs have legislation to reduce and control
environmental impact but most LDCs are more vulnerable and lack such controls. Some large MNCs have transferred their
factories to LDCs in order to avoid costly environmental legislation. All aspects are affected: air, water and land. Pollution,
toxic waste disposal and polluted water threaten to make the earth’s environment unsuitable for human life.
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8. TOURISM
General Objective
On completion of this module you should appreciate the pattern of tourism activities.
Specific Objectives
 analyze the factors contributing to the development of tourism
 apply Butler Tourism Lifecycle Model
 evaluate the effects of tourism on the environment in MDC's & LDC's
 used tool for graphical maps to analyze the location of tourism
 use flow lines proportional circles table and graph to illustrate tourism data
Introduction
Tourism is one of the largest economic sectors in the Caribbean, contributing to significant foreign exchange earnings and
employment. This tertiary economic activity has replaced agriculture as the basis of development in many Caribbean countries
[as discussed in Module 5 – Economic Structure). The growth of tourism globally has resulted from many factors in both
sending and receiving countries, such as increased affluence, improved transport and marketing. The sensitivity of tourism to
economic changes is well demonstrated by the decline in world tourism arrivals in 2009 coinciding with the global recession.
Activities concerned with tourism, recreation and leisure have taken many forms depending on distance from home, mode of
transport and type of destination. Different types of tourism are recognized, for example sports, heritage and health tourism as
well as ecotourism. Variations in tourism activity also occur between island and mainland destinations which have quite
different organizational structures and characteristics. A large influx of tourists has a severe impact on all aspects of the
environment of the host country from conflicts over land use and increased pollution to socio – cultural tensions. Butler’s
Tourism Lifecycle Model seeks to investigate the changes in tourism over time. This is particularly applicable to older
destinations which are threatened by their very success. Both LDCs and MDCs look towards sustainable tourism
development.
Content
 Types of tourism, recreation and leisure.
 Factors accounting for growth of global tourism.
 Island and mainland tourism.
 Butler’s Tourism Lifecycle Model.
 Case study of tourism in a Caribbean territory.
 Effects of tourism on the environment in LDCs and MDCs.
Types of Tourism, Recreation and Leisure
The addition of recreation and leisure to traditional tourism activities grew out of the realization of the importance of exercise
and relaxation to individual health. This was particularly so in urban areas of developed countries where jogging and cycling
paths, green spaces and outdoor activities were seen as important to the healthy lifestyle of office workers.
 Recreation can be defined as all activities voluntarily undertaken for personal enjoyment. It is associated with exercise
and sports, although hobbies can also be considered forms of recreation. Recreation time may be spent, for example,
gardening at home or by the seaside.
 Leisure can be considered as ’free’ unoccupied time or time not working. This would include all recreational and
tourist activities.
Tourism refers to all activities associated with the temporary arrival of persons in areas outside their normal residence for the
purpose of vacation.
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There are many types of tourists.
 One important distinction is between stop – over tourists who stay in the country at least 24 hours and
excursionist/visitors such as cruise ship passengers, who stay less than 24 hours.
 A second distinction is made between international tourists who cross country boundaries and whose arrival is
documented; and domestic tourists who holiday within their country of residence and whose movements are less well
recorded. (Special marketing offers to locals called ’staycations’ have been developed to bolster hotel occupancies.)
There is great variety in the types of tourism products offered as there is increased competition between destinations.
1. Sea, sand and sun (Suntan) has a long tradition of exploiting the ’tropical paradise’ of cloudless blue skies, white sand
and warm water. This type is typical of the product in the Bahamas, Barbados, Fiji and Hawaii.
2. Ecotourism/ecological/sustainable tourism offers the more environmentally conscious tourist the opportunities for
hiking, bird – watching, safaris in natural often forested surroundings. It takes place in remote rural areas. Small
simple accommodation is provided with the aim of promoting low – density tourism with minimal disturbance of the
ecosystem.
So far there has been little agreement on the definition of ecotourism. Some have offered definitions that are
considered so purist that no tourism can fulfil their expectations. But there are several guiding principles – the support
of local communities; it accepts nature on its own terms rather than attempting to transform it; it offers a first – hand
experience with nature; it shows respect for indigenous customs and cultures. Attempts are being made, with varying
success, to develop this type of tourism in, for example, Dominica, Kenya and Madagascar
3. Heritage/cultural tourism uses historical sites, festivals and other cultural activities to highlight unique features, for
example Brimstone Hill Fort, St Kitts; George Washington House, Barbados and the Tobago Heritage Festival.
4. Urban tourism may be considered a special cultural type. Cities such as London, Paris, Rome and New York offer
visitors a variety of museums, theatres, shopping, historical sites and amusement parks among their many attractions.
These areas may attract domestic tourists or even residents in 'short break’ leisure activities.
5. Sports tourism revolves around special sports events such as the Olympics and World Cup tournaments. These
include golf/tennis/ football/cricket tournaments, sailing regattas, sports conferences and halls of fame ceremonies.
In the Caribbean, the Hockey Festival in Barbados and golf tournaments in Jamaica attract many visitors.
6. Health tourism places emphasis on the use of health facilities m promote the; well – being of the tourist. It includes
spa resorts as well as medical treatment. Recently tourists have been travelling to some destinations to have surgery or
convalesce from illness. Jamaican health spas and Dominica sulphur springs are advertised as health tourism products.
7. Community – based (Rural) tourism seeks to integrate the activities with the local community. The Yam Festival in
Jamaica and the gully programme in Barbados could be considered examples of rural tourism.
Other small niche markets include weddings, diving and whale watching.
Activity 8.1
1. What is ecotourism?
2. Explain why ecotourism is becoming more popular.
Feedback
1. Ecotourism is tourism which focuses on natural attractions such as forests, game parks and nature reserves. It aims to give tourists a first –
hand experience of natural environments and demonstrate the importance of their conservation. It results in a low density of tourists and
aims for sustainable use of the area. It often includes some educational aspect.
2. One reason for the increasing popularity of ecotourism is increasing numbers of the more discerning and environmentally conscious tourists
who prefer unspoilt non – beach locations such as forested interiors. At the same time, destinations without attractive white sandy beaches
saw the opportunity to develop sustainable tourism in the interior, for example Dominica, Belize and Costa Rica. Ecotourism would allow
them to maintain their natural resource while gaining economic benefit. Other countries with very developed coastal tourism areas are also
turning to ecotourism to diversify their product and develop other regions of the country.
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Social and Economic Factors Influencing the Growth and Changing Nature of Tourism
Tourism is really a specialised type of temporary migration for the purpose of leisure or relaxation. As with all migrations,
tourism can be internal as in domestic/regional tourism or external as in international tourism. It also involves a sending
country (origin/market) and a receiving country (destination). Factors in both tourist markets and destinations have influenced
the growth and changing nature of tourism. Both social and economic factors influence the tourist seeking a pleasurable
experience and the destination which provides it.
One very significant change in the nature of tourism is the increase in cruise tourism. This has become so important in the
Caribbean that it has higher arrivals than stop – over tourists. For example, in 2002, Antigua and Barbuda had 236,700 stop –
over arrivals and 429,400 cruise ship visitors. Tourism expenditure accounted for 72.3 per cent of its GDP. In the first five
months of 2009, cruise ship visitors to Antigua numbered 415,863; while stop – over tourists had declined by 13 per cent
(Caribbean Tourism Organization statistics). Although some analysts do not consider cruise tourism as financially beneficial as
stop – over tourists, others point to the existing opportunities in tours, restaurants and shopping facilities.
All – inclusive vacations have grown in popularity in the Caribbean. As with the cruise ship industry, it is a type of enclave
industry, enclosed and self – contained. It generates large amounts of money but has a very small impact on the local
economy. Guests at these hotels, as those on cruise ships, are encouraged to spend their time and money on the site. It has
been estimated that in all – inclusive package tours, about 80 per cent of travelers’ expenditure go to airlines, hotels,
interactional travel agents and companies. Companies such as Virgin Atlantic own hotels and ground transportation and
provide air transport. Some of the money that is retained in the country leaves through leakage – for the purchase of foreign
food and drinks, for example, and through the repatriation of profits by MNCs. Leakage in the Caribbean is said to be
extremely high. These enclaves axe highly dependent on foreign tourists and are, in fact, priced out of the reach of the local
population. They are particularly useful when the image of the country abroad is tarnished, possibly by civil unrest or a crime
wave. At such times, the profile of the resort may be used as a marketing tool.
Economic factors
 The most important factor giving rise to increasing tourism activity globally is increasing affluence. Many in developed
countries can afford to travel: they have disposable income to spend on leisure activities. Increased paid holidays also
allow for more travel. Internationally, the 10 top destinations and tourism earners are mainly large developed
countries such as France, United States and Spain but include China and Mexico. For the Caribbean, traditional
markets have been North America and Europe, but increasingly intraregional tourism accounts for a significant part.
The significance of the wealth factor is starkly underlined by the global economic crisis of 2009 which resulted in
declining tourist arrivals globally and m some Caribbean countries by as much as 25 per cent.
 From 1980 developing countries have seen the decline in revenue from primary economic activities such as agriculture
and mining, and have turned to tourism to provide needed foreign exchange and employment. Most Caribbean
countries have special govemment sponsored agencies to encourage tourism investments and boost arrivals.
 The change in modes of transport has influenced accessibility of some destinations as well as the affordability of
travel. Travel is no longer the privilege of a wealthy few, as large airlines and cruise ships cater to mass tourism. Large
jetliners can carry 400 – 500 persons per trip over thousands of miles while cruise liners may disgorge a thousand
passengers at a port.
 Large multinational companies offering low–cost package deals and all–inclusive vacations allow the tourist to pay for
the complete vacation for one fixed sum before the trip. In recent years, the cost of fuel, increased security charges
and taxes have sent some airlines out of business and reduced airlift to some countries. In developing countries, newer
international airports and deep – water harbours have made more destinations accessible to tourists.
 Aggressive marketing and diversification of the tourism product in the mass media and the Internet have led co
changes in the nature of tourism activity. There are more niche markets, for example sport tourism, health tourism,
cultural/heritage tourism as well as the longstanding ‘tropical paradise’ themes. Perspective tourists can do virtual
tours of their destination, checking and booking hotels and entertainment before they leave their houses.
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Social factors
 The average tourist is better educated than previously and demands value for money. Some are willing to engage in
adventure tourism and axe aware of more exotic destinations. This group includes working women willing and able to
travel on their own.
 Many tourists are conscious about environmental conservation and will support ecotourism even if there are fewer
comforts
 Historical ties between market and destination countries, resulting in similarity of language and customs, attract
tourists from United States of America and United Kingdom to the English – speaking Caribbean.
 The Caribbean diaspora in recent years has been returning to their home lands to visit family and introduce younger
family members to their home countries.
 Changing regulations affect tourist arrivals. The recent requirement for passports for American tourists is thought to
have prevented some persons from travelling overseas.
 Govemment policy can be important in the growth and changing nature of tourism. Ministries of tourism and
statutory bodies such as tourism boards and authorities and investment companies deliberately introduce policies to
encourage investors and to market the country overseas.
 Political instability, terrorism and civil conditions such as high crime rates can deter tourists. Countries such as Sri
Lanka and Libya have suffered from the perception of lack of personal security and civil unrest.
Activity 8.2
Study the Table below which presents data on international tourist arrivals from 1970 to 2008 and answer the following questions.
International tourist arrivals (million).
Region 1970 1980 1990 2000 2008
World 165.3 278.1 439.5 687.0 922.0
Africa 2.4 7.2 15.2 28.3 47.0
America 42.3 62.3 92.8 128.1 147.2
Asia Pacific 6.2 23.0 56.2 110.5 184.1
Europe 113.0 178.5 265.6 395.9 487.9
Middle East 1.9 7.1 9.6 24.2 55.6
1. World tourism arrivals increased by the highest percentage in which year?
a. 1980 b. 2000 c. 1990 d. 1970
2. Which two regions experienced the greatest percentage growth between 1980 and 2000?
a. Middle East, Africa b. Asia Pacific, Europe c. Middle East, America d. Africa, Asia Pacific
3. Which region had the smallest change in actual number of arrivals over the period 1970 – 2008?
a. Asia Pacific b. Middle East c. Africa d. America
4. All of the following are associated with cruise ship tourism EXCEPT an increase in
a. craft industries b. hotel accommodation c. local transport d. tour guides
5. All of the following are characteristics of ecotourism EXCEPT it is a

a. type of urban tourism
b. not harmful to the environment
c. intended to support conservation
d. related to ecological capacity
6. Which of the following factors have stimulated the growth of world Feedback
tourism since 1960?
1. a 2. d 3. c 4. d 5. a 6. d
l More leisure time
II More income
III Cheaper transport
IV Longer holidays
a. l only
b. I and ll only
c. l, lll and IV only
d. I, ll, lllI and IV
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Island and Mainland Tourism
Location
Generally, island tourism developed in, for example, the Caribbean and Pacific islands, is associated with highly structured
activities concentrated on coastal areas; whereas mainland tourism in larger land areas, for example, France and Switzerland,
tend to be more dispersed spatially even if including coastal areas, and more loosely structured. Mainland tourism often
includes significant domestic regional tourists who arrive by car/rail for short periods whereas island tourism is more
dependent on international tourists arriving by air or sea.
Most Caribbean islands have this type of narrowly concentrated, highly organized tourism. On the north and west coasts of
Jamaica, the Montego Bay air and sea ports allow tourists to be taken to their nearby (often all – inclusive) hotels without
seeing the capital Kingston or any other areas of the island. Hotels in Montego Bay, Ocho Rios and Negril account for 75 per
cent of total number of rooms available in Jamaica (Phillips Atlas 5th edn, 2004, p33).
The environment for mainland tourism is generally more physically diverse – mountains, lowlands, lakes, rivers and coastal
areas – and many countries such as France and Switzerland have exploited th.is diversity w the fullest. The Mediterranean
south coast of France is a well–developed tourist destination, the French Alps, the vineyards of the south–west, the prehistoric
drawings in limestone caves, the museums and cultural heritage of the capital Paris and Disney World nearby, all result in a
much more diverse tourism product. Some have strong domestic markets and tourists travel by car/bus/train/campers from
one pan of the country to the other. In addition, international tourists arrive at the many large air and sea ports.
Organisation
Island tourism as in Jamaica is centrally organized. The main tourism areas occur in three regions of Jamaica’s 13 parishes of
11,000 sq. km. Government organizations, tour companies and travel agents market and regulate the arrivals and activities of
these mainly international tourists. There are few domestic tourists since they can rarely afford the luxurious accommodation
offered to tourists. Non–coastal activities are not well developed and amenities diminish with distance from the coastal area.
Mainland tourism in MDCs is less structured with some tourists making arrangements when they arrive in the country/region.
Although there are national tourism agencies, regional agencies in France also organize particular aspects of the product.
Hotels, guest houses and bed and breakfast accommodation catering to people with different income levels are spread
throughout the country. Not surprisingly France has one of the highest numbers of tourist arrivals in the world.
Pattern of arrivals
Island tourism often shows seasonality relating to the climate. Most islands cater to the temperate areas winter season. The
colder the winter the higher the arrivals, especially in islands which have dry clear sunny weather during this time. This ‘winter’
season is the tourism high season while arrivals are much lower in the ’off’ summer period when temperatures are also high in
temperate areas. Some islands have developed festivals and sports activities to counter this seasonality. For example, Crop
Over and Hockey Festivals in Barbados; Reggae and jazz festivals in Jamaica occur in the ‘low’ summer period.
Mainland tourism often shows less
seasonality as heritage and urban
attractions do not depend on seasonal
availability. The variety of attractions also
ensures year round arrivals. Some
mainland countries may offer winter
sports, for example Mt Tremblant,
Quebec, Canada as well as summer
activities such as Montreal Fireworks
festival which attract significant numbers
of persons both domestic and
international.
Figure 8.2 Butler's Tourism Lifecycle Model
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Mainland tourism in LDCs may share some of the characteristics of island tourism. The domestic market is small. Travel from
neighbouring countries may be difficult and circuitous and most arrive by air. The majority of tourists comprise travelers from
MDCs. Kenya has a thriving and highly organized tourist industry which offers the attractions of game parks and wildlife,
spectacular scenery, sun and sand along the Indian Ocean coast, and diving among coral reefs.
Butler (l980l suggested that tourism areas evolve over time and that there was a critical point at which intervention was needed
to ‘rejuvenate’ the area or it would go into decline. His model had several stages:
1. Exploration – the destination is first discovered by travelers who are struck by its natural beauty and there are few or
no facilities for tourists.
2. Involvement – news of the beauty spreads and a small number of tourists are attracted. This period marks the
beginning of the provision of very basic tourist facilities.
3. Development – tour operators see the potential of the area and provide package tours. Large hotels develop and
airlines begin m cater to the traffic.
4. Consolidation – this is the age of mass tourism and the original natural beauty of the location is unrecognizable.
5. Stagnation (C) – the environment deteriorates under the impact of development. Environmental pollution and
overcrowding become a problem.
6. Stabilization – the number of tourists levels off.
7. Rejuvenation – at this stage there may be reinvestment in the area and a revival of tourism, although with a different
emphasis.
Or
8. Decline (E) – the problems of the area discourage visitors, who begin the search for new destinations, and the
economy of the area suffers.
He plotted tourist arrivals over time and predicted an S – shaped curve at its peak followed by decline or rejuvenation (Figure
8.1).
Berry applied Butler's model to the resort area of Cairns, northern Queensland, Australia. This is the town adjacent to the
Great Barrier Reef. He examined accommodation from 1976 to 1998 and found they produced the pronounced S-shaped
curve predicted by Butler. Cairns appeared to be at its peak tourism development. He suggested that authorities would need to
look at interventions to prevent Butler’s stage of decline.
De Albuquerque and McElroy examined 23 small Caribbean islands in a modified three – stage Butler tourism life cycle. They
concluded that destinations such as the Bahamas, St Maarten and Barbados were at the mature stage with high density, mass
market, short – staying tourists; while others such as Dominica and St Vincent were at Stage I with low density, long – staying
tourists.
McElroy and de Albuquerque further applied a composite Tourism Penetration Index based on ’per capita visitor spending
(economic effect); daily visitor densities per 1,000 resident population (social effect) and hotel rooms per square km (socio –
environmental effect)’ to the Caribbean. They found that the most penetrated destinations included St Maarten and Bermuda
(Bahamas was not included); while Barbados was surprisingly marked as a medium – low penetrated destination and
Dominica and St Vincent and the Grenadines were among the least penetrated.
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Activity 8.3.3
Study the data below which shows tourist arrivals for selected years of thee regions
TOURIST ARRIVAL FOR SELECT YEARS (,000s)
Region 1990 1995 2000 2002 2003 2004
Canada 15,209 16,932 19,057 19,507 17,534 19,150
United States 39,362 43,491 51,237 43,218 41,218 46,077
The Caribbean 11,392 14,024 17,085 16,011 17,049 18,187
a. Outline one similarity in the pattern observed for the three regions.
b. Suggest one reason for the pattern identified in a).
c. Name the region which had the strongest recovery after 2000.
Feedback
a. One pattern common to all the regions shown is a decline in arrivals in 2002. Canada declined by 570,000; United States by 8,019,000 and
the Caribbean by1,074,000.
b. One reason could be the terrorist attack on the World Trade Centre in New York on 11 September 2001. This made many people afraid to
travel by planes at all. Many Americans did not travel to the Caribbean hence the decline in arrivals, but also many non – Americans were
insecure about travelling to the United States so their arrivals also declined.
c. The region with the strongest recovery after 2000 was the Caribbean.
Tourism in a Caribbean Territory

Tourism activities in most Caribbean territories are quite well studied. It is recommended that where appropriate, students use
their home country as their case study. In most cases there are govemment and private institutions which collect and Analyse
the data required here. In addition, the UN World Tourism Organization and the Caribbean Tourism Organization websites
have a wealth of current information on most countries. Newspaper archives often have records of major policy changes in
the industry.
Activity 8.4
1. Choose a Caribbean territory with a significant tourism sector (your own territory where possible).
2. Use an Atlas to locate the territory in the region and the world, noting where its closest markets are.
3. Draw a map of the territory to show the main tourism location(s) – hotels, but also oceans and seas, air and seaports, main roads, capital
and large towns, attractions.
4. Explain why tourism activities are concentrated in those areas. Describe the resource base – physical and human attractions in area(s);
accessibility; types of accommodation and available amenities. (Include any niche types of tourism products even if they are located outside
of the main area.)
5. Plot the statistics for monthly arrivals for long – stay and cruise ship arrivals as line graphs on the same graph. Comment about the relative
seasonality of each type of tourism.
6. Draw proportional pie charts or compound line graphs to show changes in arrivals from main markets over a 20 – year period. Suggest
reasons for the changes observed. Research any specific policies implemented by tourism authorities which may account for the changes.
7. Seek an interview with a tourism professional (for example an executive of the hotel association) to find out about the ownership of the
country's tourism products, especially the extent to which they are locally owned.
8. Choose one specific resort and try to find out the negative and positive impacts of that resort on the area. You may want to interview
residents nearby for their perception and possible conflicts that may have arisen.
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Effect of Tourism on the Environment in LDCs and MDCs
Tourist activities have a severe effect on all aspects of a destination’s environment: the natural resources are stressed as tourist
arrivals can double the daily population needs for land, water, food and waste disposal. The built and social environments are
also affected by the influx of a large number of affluent persons of different values and lifestyles in sometimes poorer
countries. These effects arc evident in both LDCs and MDCs, although the environments of small island developing countries
are often more vulnerable to all types of effects than those of larger developed countries.
On the other hand, the development of tourism has many positive effects on all destinations. It provides foreign exchange and
employment. Tourism revenues are used to improve the infrastructure as well as social facilities. In many countries tourism
has replaced agriculture as the main economic activity, although tourism should stimulate agriculture and other sectors of the
economy.
In tourist destinations, land and resource use and differences in values and cultural norms sometimes result in conflict. It can
create difficulties for states which need the economic benefits but wish to retain their cultural identity.
Physical Environment
All natural environments are affected by tourism. This is particularly evident in the disruption of coastal areas: swamps are
drained, hotels built at the water's edge, groynes interrupt the littoral drift and water sports destroy coral reefs. These all
disrupt the natural, biological and physical flows and cycles. The construction of artificial lagoons at Port St Charles, St Peter,
Barbados and Rodney Bay, St Lucia, destroyed important wetlands and completely disrupted not only natural coastal
environment, but the livelihood of nearby fishing communities.
Resources such as land and water are stressed by the influx of large numbers of persons. Tourists are great consumers of water
and energy. It has been estimated that a Spanish urban resident uses about 250 litres of water every day. The tourist uses
almost twice as much – for personal use, in swimming pools, golf courses, etc. Waste disposal, air and noise pollution are also
problems for many small island states. The Mediterranean regions of France (Cote d’Azur), Spain {Costa del Sol) and Italy
(Riviera) are among the most popular tourist destinations. Every summer the population almost doubles as tourists arrive from
northern Europe. At the beginning of the 20th century the Mediterranean Basin was considered a biodiversity hot spot, that is,
an area with an exceptionally large concentration of wild life. The tourists generate enormous amounts of solid and liquid
waste and it has been estimated – that the sea receives about 10 billion tonnes of industrial and urban waste, most of it
untreated, every year. Habitats are being destroyed and some species of wildlife – seals, turtles – are nearing extinction.
Built Environment
Large high – rise hotels and amusement parks often change the appearance and disrupt the skyline of the built environment in
both LDCs and MDCs. The introduction of large touring coaches and other forms of transport lead to pollution and
overcrowding in already congested urban areas. Increases in land prices and inflation of domestic prices often follow the
development of tourism to meet the demands of wealthy tourists. Some areas benefit from increased accessibility by the
improved infrastructure to meet tourism needs. Destinations such as the Bahamas and Barbados illustrate these stresses on the
built environment. The influx of more than 5,000 cruise ship visitors to Bridgetown on any one day creates congestion not
only in the port but along the coast and at the main attractions.
Social Environment
The influx of a large number of persons, even temporarily, of different cultural norms, can create tensions in the host country.
In a positive way, it broadens education by interaction between host and guest, and ' can promote peace and understanding. It
encourages preservation of the heritage and traditions of the host country. It can also enhance local appreciation for local
heritage and culture. Tourism creates new leisure and recreational activities for the resident population.
On the negative side tensions and conflicts may arise through misunderstandings and stereotyping. Local culture is often
commercialized for tourist consumption and this may devalue its social value. There may be clashes of values and norms, for
example many tourist destinations post dress codes and restrictions on nudity at popular tourist areas. Many tourist
destinations see increased prostitution, crime and drug trafficking as hosts seek to provide all pleasures of their guests.
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Key Points
 Many factors account for the growth of tourism globally and in the Caribbean.
 There are many types of tourism other than sea, sun and sand.
 Detailed examination of a case study would show the benefits and problems produced by a large tourism industry.
 Most destinations are seeking to develop sustainable tourism by reducing some of the negative effects.
Conclusion
Tourism has become one of the largest economic activities globally and in the Caribbean. Factors such as increased affluence
and ease of transport in source countries and the economic failure of agriculture and mining in host countries account for this
growth. The dependence on tourism for economic development leaves small islands vulnerable to the vagaries of global events
like recession and the HlNl influenza pandemic. _
There are many different types of tourism trying to cater to the demands of a changing market. Island and mainland tourism
differ significantly in organisation and pattern of arrivals. They each offer very different tourist products. Recent concerns
have focused on the sustainability of tourism as more attention is paid to the impact of tourism on the entire environment of
destinations both in LDCs and MDCs.
End Test
Study the table below which shows tourist arrivals in Barbados from the United Kingdom for each month of 2003 in thousands.
Arrivals in Barbados from UK ('000s)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
No. of 15.1 17.1 19.9 17.9 17.5 15.6 17.0 15.2 11.3 15.5 18.0 22.6
Arrivals
Source: www.tourism.gov.bb/reports/Statistical.Digest2003_4.pdf
1. Describe the pattern of arrivals for the year.
2. Explain TWO advantages and TWO disadvantages of all – inclusive resorts in the tourism industry in the Caribbean.
3. Discuss the negative impacts tourism may have on the physical and social environment.
End Test Feedback
1. Although there are more than 10 thousand arrivals every month the table still shows some seasonality. The maximum arrivals are in
December (22,600) and March (19,900) which are winter months in the United Kingdom. The lowest arrivals is in September (11,300) which
is the end of summer and possibly still quite warm. It is exceptional that the second lowest arrivals are in January, but this could be
accounted for by post – Christmas low disposable income because the arrivals then return to high levels in February, March and April. This
is the traditional winter season when tourists from temperate countries seek warmer climates.
2. All – inclusive resorts are self – contained properties which provide all the needs of the tourists. They are physically, socially and
economically enclaves, having little contact with the host environment. They are advantageous for the tourist in paying one price for
accommodation, meals and entertainment before leaving home. This reduces any anxiety about prices in the destinations. The tourist
enclave offers a safe protected environment. This is important in countries where crimes against tourists are common. There are usually
physical barriers (private beaches where allowed) and strong security presence. Excursions and shopping are arranged by the resort. All –
inclusive resorts, however, have disadvantages to the destination country in that it reduces the development of community enterprises: craft
markets, restaurants, taxis and tours, car rentals all lose business.
Isolation of tourists from the local community reinforces the separateness of tourists and can increase social tensions. The all – inclusive enclaves
often offer a lifestyle which is unaffordable to nearby local settlements.
3. The entire physical environment is affected by tourism. This is particularly evident in the disruption of coastal areas: swamps are drained,
hotels built at the water’s edge, groynes interrupting the littoral drift and water sports destroying coral reefs. These all disrupt the natural
biological and physical flows and cycles. The construction of artificial lagoons at Port St Charles, St Peter, Barbados and Rodney Bay, St
Lucia, destroyed important wetlands and completely disrupted not only natural coastal environment, but the livelihood of nearby fishing
communities. Pollution and stress on the water and waste disposal also impact on the physical environment. The arrival of large numbers of
tourists from other cultures also affects the social environment of the host country. Local culture is often commercialized for tourist
consumption which may devalue its social value. There may be clashes of values and norms, for example many tourist destinations post
dress codes and restrictions on nudity at popular tourist areas. Many tourist destinations see increased prostitution, crime and drug
trafficking as hosts seek to provide all pleasures for their guests.
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9. DEVELOPMENT AND UNDERDEVELOPMENT
General Objective
On completion of this module you should be able to understand the nature of development and disparities in development
Specific Objectives
 Explain the concept and nature of development, underdevelopment and sustainable development
 Measure disparity in development
Introduction
Caribbean countries vary greatly in levels of development and although they would all be considered developing countries,
disparities among and within individual countries are significant. By some of the indicators used, to measure development.
Barbados has achieved a higher level than most Caribbean countries, Development is measured by standard indicators, which
may be economic or a combination of economic and social. These indicators help to identify disparities or differences in
development between countries as well as within countries. Economic indicators have for a long time been the standard
indicators used to define development in a country, but more recently, a number of non – economic indicators have gained
recognition as being equally useful and important. On the whole it is difficult to assess the development of any country entirely
except with reference to other countries.
Content
 Definition of development, underdevelopment and sustainable development.
 Economic and non – economic indicators of development. .
 Strengths and Weaknesses of economic and non – economic indicators of development.
 The representation of the data collected in the form of charts, graphs and maps. '
 Analysis of disparities from the data collected. .
Development
The term ‘development’ means different things to different people. To some it means that a country has put all its productive
resources to the fullest possible use. To others, it implies a change from a traditional society using simple techniques to a
modern high – income, high – technology society. Underdevelopment is the opposite. The term was introduced to replace the
less flattering backwardness’ which was in use until the late 19403. Since – then, there has been a search for a more satisfactory
term to describe countries seen as underdeveloped and several have been in use – Third World, undeveloped, developing,
south. To some it means that a country is not using its resources to the full and therefore the standard of living of its citizens
does not match the resources. This suggests that if additional capital, labour or technology were applied there would be an
improvement in the standard of living of the people. To many others, the term is synonymous with poverty.
A number of reasons have been suggested for underdevelopment. Underdevelopment is sometimes believed to be a
consequence of colonialism, and is particularly evident in former colonies whose economy (export – oriented cash crops) may
still be structured to benefits overseas investors or companies rather than the local population. Some argue that there is too
much reliance on the export of natural resources which prevents the development of manufacturing. Overpopulation and
overcrowding have been cited as causes, along with poor govemment, corruption, disregard for the law and property rights, as
well as ecological conditions in tropical countries that affect health and shorten lifespan.
Not all developing or underdeveloped countries are at the same stage so there have been refinements of the term. There are
moderately developed and least developed countries; low and middle income countries; newly industrialising and emerging
economies. These efforts underscore the difficulties of describing a group of countries with differing social and economic
circumstances.
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Early theories of development
For many, development is synonymous with economic growth and improvements in the material conditions in a society, and
early definitions of development emphasised the process as one of economic growth. This marks the stage when discussions
about development were led by economists. According to modernisation theory, a country was underdeveloped because of
internal factors such as illiteracy, poor infrastructure, and traditions. The countries were backward. For development to occur,
these conditions must be changed and the model of current industrialised countries followed. There were stages of
development through which all countries must pass (see Rostow, Module 10). In other words, development was seen as a
linear process. With capital and technology transfer, backward countries would experience economic growth.
Industrialisation/modernisation was the engine of growth and given time, poor countries will progressively become
industrialised.
Other economists such as the West Indian Arthur Lewis, emphasised the dual economy of underdeveloped countries. There
was a traditional and backward on the one hand, and a modern/advanced economy on the other. The traditional was
characterised by subsistence activities, such as petty trading, handicrafts, subsistence farming. The modern was the enclave of
industrial countries – capitalist enterprises, plantations. For development to occur the traditional had to be suppressed and the
modem expanded. Investment, it was said, should be concentrated in a few sectors of the economy and it was assumed it
would eventually produce a trickle down’ effect that would indirectly affect other sectors. Similarly, making the countries of
the First World, or urban areas, or the elite in a society richer will affect the broader population. In fact, one economist
maintained that their overall concern was growth and not distribution. In other words, there was no concern over the
possibility that economic growth could produce inequalities in society.
In 2008, per capita Gross National Income (GNI) in wealthy OECD countries was US$42,036, but in the Middle East and
North Africa it was $16,785 and in Latin America and the Caribbean it was $6,549. In 2007, almost 52 per cent of the
population were living below the poverty line in Kenya and in Nigeria the figure was 34 per cent. Obviously, the ’trickle down,
top down approach for most countries has not worked. Critics argued that the approach did not work because it was too
Eurocentric. It was the nations in the north that devised the strategies for development and they were based on their own
experience. . Moreover, it was argued that these grand development theories (and those that followed, see Module 10) assumed
that all poor countries have similar economic and social structures and would experience the same change. But the success of
the countries referred to as the Asian ‘Tigers’ – Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea and Taiwan – with the fastest – growing
industrialised economies, has proved that th.is is wrong. Increasingly it is being realised that development is related to history,
values and culture.
Change in definition
In time, there was a call for a broader notion of development and underdevelopment, and non – economic criteria were
included. Development was defined as an economic, social and political process which results in a sustained improvement in
the standard of living of a significant proportion of a country’s population. The use of the word ’sustained’ implies that the
changes in living conditions should not be temporary and that the people of a country should experience improvements over
time, Moreover, the process should not Simply affect a small group Within society. In this broader concept of development,
the view is that the process must improve the lives of the majority of the – men, women and children in the society.
The terms ‘more economically’ developed (MECD) and ‘less economically developed’ (LECD) or MDC and LDC are
generally in use today. For – most, it is a distinction between the rich and poor countries of the world, between North and
South. It is difficult to produce simple definitions of the two that would include all possible criteria. One way of overcoming
this difficulty is to establish indicators of development and the extent to which countries meet these criteria. It must be
remembered, however, that these are country characteristics and that there are groups within developing countries whose
wealth and well – being differ markedly from’ the majority. Disparities within developing countries are often greater than
within developed. These members of a country’s elite usually live in urban areas.
Examine Figure 9.1. Is this country developed or developing?
What are your reasons for answering the way you do?
103
Figure 9.1 Wealth versus poverty
Figure 9.2 Disparities in development
104
Figure 9.3 Poverty in India Figure 9.4 Selling supercars in India
 What aspect of the country are shown in the photograph above?
 Why do these differences exist, especially in countries with large populations?
Figure 9.5 Mall Figure 9.6 Apartment complex

 Are these images you expect to see in the developing country? If not, why not?
 What is your perception of a developing country?
Sustainable development
Sustainable development is defined as development which meets the needs of the current population without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their needs. It is linked with environmental issues, and makes reference to the
effective and ecologically sound use of resources in the drive towards development. The point of sustainable development is
that today’s population must bear in mind the needs of future generations, and the emphasis is often placed on the use of
renewable rather than non – renewable resources, especially energy (wind and solar energy versus oil and other fossil fuels).
Meeting the needs of the majority of the population is also important, especially with respect to the basic requirements of
food, shelter, access to health care and education. The concept of sustainable development arose out of the Brundtland Report
in 1987 which drew attention to the need to link economic development with environmental protection and social equity.
Sustainable development focuses on the need to recognise the concept of carrying capacity, emphasising the importance of
maintaining a balance between population growth and the use of resources. Carrying capacity describes the relationship
between growth and resources. If the carrying capacity is exceeded, then there are consequences for the population. Indeed,
one of the tenets of sustainable development is the need to reduce population growth in countries which are already having
difficulties meeting their population’s needs. According to the Encyclopedia of Sustainable Development (2000), in the
context of sustainability, carrying capacity is the size of the population that can be supported indefinitely upon the available
resources and services of supporting natural, social, human and built capital.
105
Sustainable development is very difficult for some countries to achieve. High population numbers mean that there is stress on
existing resources, as well as a pressing need for further growth and development of these resources to provide for the existing
and rapidly growing population.
In fact some small groups of nomadic hunter – gatherers had evolved sustainable development for their own environments,
for example South American indigenous people and Bedouin of difficult hot deserts. Large sedentary settlements are probably
not sustainable.
Economic and non – economic indicators of development

In order to establish the level of development of a country, it is necessary to have some form of measurement. Development
is defined on a comparative basis (as Canada is more developed than Haiti) and there must be a way to both describe and
compare all countries in a systematic way.
Indicators of development share one common characteristic – they must be measurable. Therefore, the number of hospital
beds per 1,000 of the population is an indicator of health, rather than simply access to health care. Each aspect of
development may be measured in different ways, for example education may be measured by any or all of: number of schools/
universities, enrolment, teacher/pupil ratios, percentage of population with qualifications, literacy rate, and each of these can in
tum be made operational in different ways.
There is also the problem of getting reliable data from all countries measured in standard ways. Economic indicators of
development measure the wealth of the population, and help to define the level of development in a country along economic
or monetary terms. Examples of the economic indicators of development most commonly used are:
 GDP (Gross Domestic Product): The value of all final goods and services produced in a specific country in US$. It
is the broadest
 GDI? (Gross Domestic Product): The value of all final goods and services produced in a specific country in US$. It
is the broadest measure of economic act1v1ty and the principal indicator of economic performance.
 GNP (Gross National Product}: Gross domestic product plus the income received from abroad by residents, less
payments remitted abroad to non – residents.
 Purchasing Power Parity: This is the GDP adjusted for the cost of 11v1ng m the country. It examines how much a
standard unit of currency can purchase in different countries and, therefore, gives an idea of how much it really costs
to live at a particular standard of living. It tries to address issues of exchange rates and the relative values of different
currencies.
 Energy Consumption: This is a measure of the use of energy and, therefore, of the degree of industrialisation and
technological advancement. GDP, GNP and PPP and energy consumption are often given as per capita, that is, each
indicator divided by the total population.
 % employed in agriculture: A high percentage employed in agriculture usually indicates limited economic
development and is associated with low per capita income. As agriculture is mechanised, productivity increases and
fewer workers are employed.
Non – economic measures include health. There are many contrasts in health between MDCs and LDCs. There are stark
contrasts in material and infant mortality and life expectancy for example. To some extent – this is a reflection of social and
economic conditions, the availability and quality of health care.
Education is also important. In many poor countries school enrolment is low and attendance poor. Girls are often
disadvantaged and this has implications for birth rates. High levels of illiteracy hamper development.
The United Nations use an aggregate measure of development which combines economic and non – economic measures.
 Human Development Index (HDI). The HDI measures a country’s achievement in three dimensions of human
development. Health is measured by life expectancy; knowledge by a combination of adult literacy and school
enrolment; and the standard of living by a conversion of GDP to PPP. Every year individual countries are ranked and
grouped into high, middle and low development countries. In 2009, Norway was ranked number l, with an HDI of
106
0.971 out of a possible total of 1.0. Niger ranked 182nd, with an HDI of 0.340. Most Caribbean countries lie between
0.700 and 0.899, except for Barbados (ranked 37) and Haiti (ranked 149) (see Table 9.1).
Many measures of development take no account of the sex structure of the society and in many countries there are inequalities
between men and women. These socially created distinctions between the sexes are what constitutes gender and the United
Nations try to capture them in the Gender Related Development Index (GDI). The GDI measures life expectancy at birth,
adult literacy rate (percentage aged 15 years and over), the combined gross enrolment rate for primary, secondary and tertiary
education (per cent), and the estimated earned income (PPP US$) for both males and females. The UN uses a different
standard for life expectancy male (82.5 years) and female (87.5 years) because in almost all countries women live longer. The
maximum score achievable is also 1.0. In many countries, women’s development lags behind that of men, and the overall
development of the country suffers as a consequence. This will be discussed more fully in Module 10 – Global disparities in
development.
Many measures of development take no account of the sex structure of the society and in many countries there are inequalities
between men and women. These socially created distinctions between the sexes are what constitutes gender and the United
Nations try to capture them in the Gender Related Development Index (GDI). The GDI measures life expectancy at birth,
adult literacy rate (percentage aged 15 years and over), the combined gross enrolment rate for primary, secondary and tertiary
education (per cent), and the estimated earned income (PPP US$) for both males and females. The UN uses a different
standard for life expectancy male (82.5 years) and female (87.5 years) because in almost all countries women live longer. The
maximum score achievable is also 1.0. In many countries, women’s development lags behind that of men, and the overall
development of the country suffers as a consequence. This will be discussed more fully in Module 10 – Global disparities in
development.
Table 9.1 Social and economic indicators for select developing countries
Activity 9.2
Account for the differences seen in Table 9.1 above among the three countries listed.
Feedback
From Table 9.1, it can be seen that despite Nigeria’s much larger size – both in population and economy – it is not better off with respect to
development. Barbados, the smallest country of the three, shows much greater development, both socially and economically. It may be surmised
that Nigeria‘s large population works to its detriment, as there are too many people to be provided for by the existing resources and income. The
amount spent by each government on its social services also indicates its level of overall development, Barbados spends the most on health care
and education.
Barbados spends the highest percentage of the three countries on these social services, which help to push it much higher in the HDI rankings.
The life expectancy of the three countries tells a lot about the living conditions in each country. Nigeria, conditions are very poor, and a child born
in 2006 is only expected to live to the age of approximately 48. This suggests that health care is not easily accessible to most people in the
country, either economically or spatially.
107
Table 9.2 Strengths and weaknesses of GDP
Strengths of Economic Indicators: GDP Weaknesses: GDP per capita
 Allow countries to be compared according to the  It is an average, which does not take into account
same characteristics. regional variations.
 Gives a quick overall summary of conditions in the  It ignores the informal economy.
country.  It does not take into account the social and
 Easily collected. environmental cost of economic growth.
 It is a simple measure to apply  Quantity does not measure equality.
 It does not take into account cost of living in
different countries.
 There may be major inequalities within the country
but it assumes even distribution.
 It does not take into account the value of voluntary
or domestic work
*Hence the introduction of the PPP (Purchasing Power Parity).
Table 9.3 Strengths and weaknesses of HDI
Strengths of HDI Weaknesses of the HDI
 It is reported annually so data is usually current.  It does not cover the ecological aspect of
 Integrates supplementary information with income sustainability.
data.  It neglects other aspects of human development
 Highly recognized and visible indicator. such as political and civil issues.
 The ranking mechanism is an easily understood  The topics making up the index are not properly
tool. assessed; for example, literacy is only one part of
 The data for calculating the index is widely available knowledge.
 The data is not necessarily reliable.
 The index is selective of the issues it includes.
Activity 9.3
Study the Table 9.4 below which shows demographic characteristic of selected Caribbean countries.
Table 9.4 Demographic characteristic
COUNTRY POPULATION URBAN DEATH RATE FERTILITY DEPENDENCY LIFE
(,000) POPULATION (%) RATE EXPECTANCY
ANTIGUA & 65 37 5.8 2.3 48.6 71
BARBUDA
BARBADOS 269 51 7.8 1.5 51.1 77
CUBA 11,273 76 7.2 1.6 43.6 76
JAMAICA 2,621 57 5.7 2.4 60.7 76
TRINIDAD & 1,306 75 6.0 1.5 43.5 75
TOBAGO
VENEZUELA 25,093 87 2.7 2.7 60.3 73
1. From the table above, select TWO indicators that can be used as measures of development.
2. Explain why ONE of the indicators you have selected in 1) above can be regarded as a measure of development.
Feedback
1. Fertility rate and life expectancy.
2. Life expectancy is a measure of how long a person is expected to live at birth in a specific country. Life expectancy gives some indication
about the status of health care in the country. In general, the longer the life expectancy, the more developed the country will be. High life
expectancy suggests that the majority of the population has access to medicines, doctors and health care facilities and children do not die
of childhood illnesses in large numbers. Low life expectancy suggests the opposite. Development is concerned with the way in which
people live, including their health.
108
Data Collection
Table 9.5 Development Indicators
Country GDP per Life Literacy 1 HDI 1 HDI Rank 1 Infant Mortality
capita1 expectancy 1 (%) (Index value) Rate 2
(PPP US$) (years) (per 1,000)
Antigua and 18,691 72.2 99 0.868 47 16.3
Barbuda
Bahamas 20,253 7302 95.8 0.856 52 23.2
Barbados 17,956 77 99.7 0.903 37 12.3
Cuba 6,876 78.5 99.8 0.863 51 5.8
Dominica 7,893 76.9 88 0.814 73 13.7
Grenada 7,344 75.3 96 0.813 74 13.2
Guyana 2,782 66.5 99 0.729 114 29.7
Haiti 1,155 61 62.1 0.532 149 59.7
Jamaica 6,079 71.7 86 0.766 100 15.2
St Kitts and 14,481 72.2 97.8 0.838 62 13.9
Nevis
St Lucia 9,786 73.6 94.8 0.821 96 13.4
St Vincent and 7,691 71.4 88.1 0.772 91 15.1
the Grenadines
Trinidad and 23,507 69.2 98.7 0.837 64 29.9
Tobago
United 35,130 79.3 99 0.947 21 4.9
Kingdom
United States 45,592 79.1 99 0.956 13 6.3
Norway 53,433 80.5 99 0.971 1 3.6
Nigeria 627 50.8 28.7 0.340 182 116.7
Activity 9.5
Using the data in Table 9.5, create a bar chart to illustrate the differences in per capita GDP.
Feedback
GDP per capita1 (PPP US$)
Nigeria
United States
Trinidad and Tobago
St Lucia
Jamaica
Guyana
Dominica
Barbados
Antigua and Barbuda
0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 60,000
109
Activity 9.4
1. You have been asked to measure regional disparities in these four aspects of life within your country using the four indicators below. State
ONE indicator of EACH of these aspects which you would use to measure disparities.
a. Education
b. Housing
c. Health
d. Employment
2. The measurement of gross national product (GNP) includes
I. Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
II. Purchasing Power Parity (PPP)
III. Income to residents of a country from abroad
IV. Income of foreign residents investing in a country
a. I only
b. I and II only
c. II and III only
d. I and IV only
3. Which of the following indices is NOT used in the calculation of the Human Development Index?
a. Infant Mortality Rate
b. Life Expectancy
c. Literacy Rate
d. Purchasing Power Parity
4. Which of the following is NOT a useful measure of development in a country?
a. Total value of goods produced
b. Life expectancy of the population
c. Crude death rate
d. Level of literacy in the society
5. 5 Why is the Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) an important measure of development? ,
I. Infants are the most vulnerable
II. It is an indicator of health and nutrition status
III. It is typical of developing countries
IV. It is indicative of improved living standards
a. I and Ii only
b. l and IV only
c. I, II and "I only
d. I, II and IV only
Feedback
1. a. Literacy
b. Life expectancy
c. % homeless
d. % unemployed
2. c 3. a 4. C 5.d
Key Points
 Economic development does not necessarily equal overall development.
 Economic indicators cannot describe the total development of a country.
 Underdevelopment can affect countries with many resources.
 Sustainable development must take environmental issues into account.
 There are disparities within and among countries which can be hidden by statistical indicators.
 Social and economic indicators together give a better idea of a country’s development status but each has its strengths
and weaknesses.
110
Conclusion
Development issues are complex and involve many different aspects of growth, especially social conditions and sustainability,
in a country.
Measuring development strictly by economic indicators does not give a complete picture of the development status of a
country. Social indicators, such as health care access or education levels, can help describe the living conditions in a country. If
only economic indicators such as GDP or PPP are used, then there is little information about distribution or access to services
which may be critical to a better standard of living. It distorts the actual living conditions experienced by the majority of the
population.
Social indicators such as the HDI and information about education and health care access provide critical information which
can help complete the development picture of a country.
End Test
1. Define Gross Domestic Product (GDP).
2. Describe THREE advantages of using GDP as an indicator of development.
3. Study Table 9.6 which shows access to safe drinking water in Honduras and answer the question that follows.
Table 9.6 Access to safe drinking water in Honduras (% households 7970—2002)

Year Urban Rural
1970 99 10
1980 93 40
1990 85 48
2000 97 82
2002 99 82
Draw line graphs to show changes in access to safe drinking water in urban and rural areas of Honduras from 1970 to 2002.
4. Which area experienced greatest improvement over the period shown?
End Test Feedback

1. GDP is the total value of goods and services produced in a country in one year.
2. Three advantages:
GDP is easily obtained
GDP allows countries to be compared using the same criteria
GDP is simple to apply.
3. Access to safe drinking water
Access to safe drinking water
150
100
50
0
1 2 3 4 5
Urban Rural
4. The greatest improvement was in the rural area.
111
10. GLOBAL DISPARITY
General Objectives
 On completion of this module you should be able to understand the global disparities in development.
Specific Objectives
 Measure disparities in development
 Apply models of development
 Analyse global disparities in development
Introduction
This module will look at global disparities in poverty, life expectancy, gender and education. Differences have been observed
between MDCs and LDCs, among MDCs and within most countries. It will also continue the discussion on approaches to
development which was introduced in Module 9. In that module there was an introduction to two of the classical theoretical
approaches to development. Rostow’s model will be elaborated and the radical approach of dependency theorist introduced.
The consequences of global disparities will be presented.
Many LDCs and Caribbean nations are also classified as Small Island Developing States (SIDS), facing similar issues, using
similar resources and skills to cope with the challenges of development. SIDS share many common characteristics, size being
the most obvious. They are also equally disadvantaged by the poverty of their resource base, locations, government policy,
vulnerability to hazards and technology use among others.
Content
 Definitions of poverty, life expectancy, gender.
 Global disparities in income, poverty, life expectancy and education including gender disparities.
 Rostow’s model, Colonialism, Dependency model and how it is used to explain disparities in development between
Britain and the Caribbean.
 The concept of Small Island Developing States (SIDS) (including, for example, the role of disasters, debt burden,
technology and government policy) and its utility in explaining disparities development between Britain and the
Caribbean.
 The consequences of global disparities (economic, political, environmental and social consequences).
Definitions: Poverty, Life Expectancy and Gender
Poverty
Poverty as measured in development has a number of different meanings. On a day-to-day level, poverty may be understood
as the inability of persons to meet their basic needs for goods and services such as food, water, health care, education and
shelter. This is absolute poverty. It is usually based on the cost of a standard basket of goods in the country, whether a person
can afford to buy these goods or not. Absolute poverty can result in poor nutrition, a low life expectancy and high infant
mortality. Persons living below the country’s defined poverty line do not make enough money to purchase basic necessities for
an adequate standard of living.
The concept of relative poverty is also important in development, and it refers to the extent to which a household’s financial
resources fall below an average income threshold for the economy – that is, whether a person can afford the same items that
the average person in the country can afford. It is a comparative measure. On a global scale, poverty is measured by the
Human Poverty Index (HPI), which uses indicators to represent the most basic types of deprivation – survival, knowledge and
standard of living. The standards are different for LDCs and MDCs, reflecting the socio-economic differences between them.
The HPI-l is used in LDCs, while the HPI-Z is used in MDCs. The basic HPI is measured by:
 Survival: the likelihood of death at a relatively early age. It is measured by the probability of not surviving to the age of
40 in LDCs and age 60 in MDCs.
112
 Knowledge: exclusion from the world of reading and communication. It is measured by the percentage of adults who
are illiterate.
 Standard of living: overall economic ability. It is measured in LDCs as the average of the percentage of the population
without access to safe drinking water and the percentage of underweight children for their age. In MDCs, it is the
percentage of the population below the income poverty line (50 per cent of the median household disposable
income).
HPI-Z also includes social exclusion, measured by the rate of long-term unemployment.
Life expectancy
Life expectancy is defined as the average number of years that a person can expect to live, calculated at birth. It is a useful
summary of mortality. A life expectancy of 70 in 2000 means that babies born in 2000 could have a life expectancy of 70 years
if they live their lives subject to the age-specific mortality rates of the population in 2000. However, mortality rates change. So
the figure is hypothetical.
Gender
There are widely held beliefs in society about gender and the roles, behaviours and attitudes considered appropriate for men
and women. A distinction is made between sex, which is biological and gender which is cultural. The roles are imposed
through a variety of influences and institutions – the home, school and peer groups. Some roles are traditionally seen as more
important than others. Women play a key role in unpaid processes such as care in the home and this has been extended to care
in the marketplace – nursing, teaching. The roles and behaviours have given rise to gender inequalities.
The let century is seeing a change in the manner in which the term ‘gender’ is being used. Increasingly it is replacing the word
‘sex’. It is being acknowledged that distinctions are difficult to maintain.
Poverty - distribution
Figure 10.1 shows the world distribution of poverty and the extent to which it is concentrated in the South — in Africa and
Asia especially.
According to the United Nations, these countries all have very low incomes (less than US$745 per capita). Roughly 50 per cent
of their populations live on less than US$1 dollar a day, and 80 percent on less than US$2 a day. They face extreme difficulties
in providing services such as health care and education; life expectancy is declining as a result of malnutrition, HIV/AIDS, and
other diseases like malaria and tuberculosis; and they struggle to maintain a balanced and sound economy. The resources and
technologies available to most of the least- developed countries are limited. Several of these countries are further
disadvantaged by geography. Twenty-eight of them are landlocked or far-flung, small islands. There are many that are plagued
by conflicts natural disasters, making economic progress an even greater challenge.
Figure 10.1 World Poverty Distribution
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In 1970, most of the poor people in the world lived in South and East Asia, while Africa accounted for only 11 per cent of the
total. This picture has changed over the years as the countries of Asia have achieved higher levels of development, outstripping
growth and development in Africa. Asian countries including the Newly Industrializing Countries of Singapore, Hong Kong
and Taiwan have achieved significant growth in their manufacturing sectors (Module 7 – Industry) which has created a large
number of jobs in this sector. The growth in exports of manufactured goods has led to an increase in GDP. 80 the face of
global poverty has changed. A poor person in 2.000 was more likely to be found Africa than Asia, Repeated natural disasters,
in particular drought, in decimated the food Supply of many African countries, especially in the Sahel region and caused
famine and major suffering in many sub-Sahara countries such as Chad, Sudan and Ethiopia.
Civil wars and the upheaval caused by massive refugee movement from war-torn areas in Africa have also disrupted economic
activities and livelihoods. Many persons in affected areas have lost their homes, families and their way of life. In many African
countries, HIV/AIDS has considerably reduced the productive workforce because of the age groups affected by the disease.
Many children have been orphaned, and are being raised by grandparents. Poor nutrition has also contributed to the spread of
diseases, many of which have been eradicated in MDCs, such as measles, smallpox and malaria. It is estimated that by 2015,
Africa will account for more than 60 per cent of the world’s poor.
Disparities in the level of poverty exist between MDCs and LDCs. They also exist within MDCs and LDCs. In 2002, almost
36 million people in the United States lived below the official poverty line. The South had the highest concentration with most
living in central cities and suburbs, the United Kingdom, 30 per cent of the working-age population of inner London live
below the official poverty line. In the Caribbean, there is an urban rural disparity with higher levels in rural areas except in
Barbados. Urban poverty is, however, more visible.
Women, and especially those in developing countries, appear to be at greater risk of poverty than men. Several explanations
are given for this. The first is the existence of many poor female-headed households. Large numbers of female-headed
households are poor; many can only take part-time jobs or jobs in the informal sector in order to manage household tasks.
However, the relationship between female headship and poverty is not clear. A high percentage of women head households in
Jamaica but an association with poverty has not been made.
Female poverty has also been linked to higher levels of unemployment. They are over-represented in unpaid jobs and jobs in
the informal sector and under-represented in higher-paid formal sector jobs. According to a World Bank Report (2001) in
both MDCs and LDCs female earnings are 70 to 80 per cent of male and little of this is explained by educational attainment.
Rather, it is more the result of prejudices and taboos in the workplace.
Activity
1. Define each of the following terms:
a. Relative poverty
b. Absolute poverty
2. Outline ONE disadvantage of using the term ‘relative poverty’.
Feedback
1. a. The concept of relative poverty is based on the belief that people are poor if their economic condition is significantly worse than that of
the rest of the community. In other words, they are poor in relation to the rest of the community. For example, some may be considered
poor if they earn less than 20 per cent of the median income.
b. Absolute poverty is based on the cost of basic goods —food and non-food. Food is the most crucial need and the cost of a standard
basket of basic goods that meet nutritional requirements is collected in different parts of the country. Those who are unable to meet this
cost fall below the poverty line and are living in absolute poverty.
2. The concept of relative poverty overlooks the fact that there may be regional variation in the price of essential items and so may exaggerate
regional differences in poverty.
Life expectancy – distribution

The variation of life expectancy is not so great among MDCs. North America has the highest life expectancy (77). The
European rate is affected by the low life expectancy in Russia where there is a 13-year difference between that for men (59)
and women (72). Much of the difference is believed to be the result of the unhealthy lifestyles of Russian men.
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The rapid increase in life expectancy in Europe at the end of the 19th century was caused by improvements in public health
and nutrition which improved infant and maternal mortality rates. Today, increased life expectancy in MDCs is the result of
improvements in mortality rates among the elderly.
Table 10.1 shows an 11-year gap between the life expectancy for MDCs and LDCs whereas differences are not great among
the MDCs, they are considerable among LDCs. The situation in sub-Saharan Africa is striking. "No-thirds of the total number
of persons living with HIV/Aids live in this part of the world. In 2008, 1.4 million persons died of HIV/AIDS related
complaints. This disease has erased many years of progress in improving life expectancies on the continent. It has been
estimated that the epidemic has reduced overall life expectancies by about 15 years.
Table 10.1 Life expectancy at birth – 2001
Area Total Male Female
World 67 65 69
MDCs 75 72 79
LDCs 64 63 66
Europe 74 70 79
Africa 54 52 55
Latin America and Caribbean 71 68 74
Differences have also been observed within countries, In Britain, for example, life expectancy increases from north to south
and is highest among the more affluent.
Table 10.1 also shows that the life expectancy for women is higher than for men. It appears that with development the gap
widens. There is a gap of 3 – 4 years in LDCs but about seven years in MDCs. The reasons for the sex difference is not fully
understood and several explanations have been put forward - that women are biologically superior; that men are involved in
more hazardous occupations and that they take more risks.
Education
Table 10.2 Net primary school enrolment (NER) – 2004
Area Total Male Female
World 86.0 87.8 83.7
MDCs 95.9 96.6 95.1
South Asia 87.1 90.1 83.9
Sub-Saharan Africa 67.2 69.6 64.7
Latin America and Caribbean 94.0 94.4 94.3
At the primary level, the net enrolment for girls in 2004 was generally below that of boys in most parts of the world (Table
10.2). However, the disparities increase at higher levels of education. MDCs are close to gender parity in secondary education,
and in Latin America and the Caribbean girls are more likely to be enrolled at the secondary level than boys. Here, too, the
gender gap is quite serious in sub-Saharan Africa as well as west Asia. Adult literacy shows a similar distribution. It is a
developing world phenomenon and almost two-thirds of the world’s illiterates live in LDCs.
Much of the difference in education between MDCs and LDCs reflects disparities in wealth. Very often, poor countries spend
a larger share of their national wealth on education than rich. MDCs have one-fifth of the world’s population but account for
four – fifths of the total spending on education. There are income inequalities, but these are made worse by demographic
factors. The education budget of LDCs is smaller but must provide for a larger primary-school population.
The status of women
In 1995 the Human Development Report introduced two measures to document the status of women. The Gender-related
Development Index (GDI) (Table 10.3) measures achievement in the same basic areas as the HDI (literacy, income, life
expectancy), but it notes inequalities between men and women. The measure penalizes countries when they allow the
achievement levels of men and women to fall or when disparity increases. They lose points gained on the HDI.
The Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) (Table 10.4) evaluates the extent to which men and women participate in the
economic and political life of the country and take part in decision making.
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Table 10.3 Gender-related Development Index for Selected Countries
Table 10.4 Gender Empowerment Measures for Selected Countries
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Table 10.5 Global Disparities
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Activity 10.2
1. Outline the reason why the United Nations introduced a Gender Development lndex (GDI).
2. List TWO indices measured in the GDI.
Investigate: The 2001 Millennium goals for poverty and hunger, education, and gender equality and empowerment.
Feedback
1. The GDI was introduced to consider gender disparity in overall human development.
2. Literacy, life ‘expectancy, income per capita.
Activity 10.3
1. Using Table 10.5. Describe the disparities in development between Very High Human Development countries and Low Human Development
countries.
2. Account for the differences you have identified in (1).
Feedback
1. Generally, in the Low HDI countries, the indicators are all uniformly worse than in Very High HDI countries. Income of the selected countries
does not exceed $1.1OO per capita and all other indicators of development are very low. The Human Poverty Index, however, for these
countries is extremely high.
In contrast, in the selected Very High HDI countries, most of them have an income per capita well over $30,000. There is one country listed.
Barbados, which has the lowest per capita income ($17.000), yet is equal to the other countries with respect to the other indicators.
Gender inequalities are significantly higher in the Low HDI countries than in the Very High HDI countries. The GDI of the LCIs is generally
below 0.300, while the VHICs are at 0.900 and above. The same can be said of education, where only one LIC had a gross enrolment of 50
per cent or higher, while in the VHICs, this figure did not fall below 85 per cent.
Life expectancy is also another area in which there are large disparities between these two groups of countries. In the more developed
countries, people will live to the age of 77 at the low end and 82 years on the high end. In the less developed countries however, life
expectancy is very low with 50 years being the highest age persons can expect to reach.
2. Standard of living in the VHICs is higher than the LICs. There is more economic activity generating higher returns for the countries, which in
turn assures the population of a higher income per capita. Many LICs have very large populations and rely heavily on primary activities
(agriculture, fishing. and mining) which may be less profitable.
The status of women tends to be higher in VHICs, as they are more highly educated, and have more opportunities for employment outside of
the home. Gender disparities in living conditions, health and education. Therefore, tend to be lower in VHICs. In LICs, women are often not
given the opportunity to go to school and their employment options are limited. In addition, the lack of social welfare and support services in
LICs often leads to families favouring sons, who would be expected to look after their parents in old age, while girls are seen as burdens who
will be 'lost' to other families when they (inevitably) get married and move in with their husbands.
Access to health care and the availability of medicines is significantly better in VHICs. There is major research and development into
diseases and finding cures, and levels of sanitation are high, with most people having access to utilities such as electricity and water. This is
unlike the situation in LICs where health care is limited, and poor and unsanitary living conditions increase the spread of diseases. Lack of
education and high doctor: patient ratios also contribute to the poor health care situation in these countries. HlV/AIDS has decimated many
populations in LICs, with the most productive sectors of the population suffering the heaviest losses.
Globally, countries are at different stages of economic and social development and there have been many attempts to explain
different patterns of development. Colonialism is one of these.
Colonialism
Colonialism is:
 the maintaining of colonies in one territory by people from another
 a practice of domination which involves the subjugation of one people to another
 the global expansion of capitalism for political and economic motives
 the economic and political domination of a political unit comprising people of a different race and culture.
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These are only some of the definitions of colonialism that are current. A part of the problem of definition is the fact that
Europeans established colonies for reasons which varied in time and depending on the' nature of both the colonizers and the
colonized. Another reason for the difficulty is that colonialism is often used interchangeably with imperialism. Colonialism
usually involves a permanent settler population from the colonial country. In imperialism, control is exerted either through
settlers or indirectly.
Potter et al – (1999) describe three phases of colonialism beginning in the 16th century. The first was mercantile colonialism
and the motives were predominantly trade and commerce. In the Caribbean, this was the stage of the development of
plantations. In Africa and Asia, the early contacts were essentially related to the exchange of commodities – Europeans goods
for slaves or for spices, porcelain and silk. The commodity exchange in Africa and Asia, though extensive and lucrative, did
not result in a settler population. But to protect the trade, Europeans made alliances and got involved in conflicts that had
severe repercussions. In the Caribbean and America, settlers from France, Spain and Britain became involved in the
production of plantation products. Regulations were imposed that allowed the colonies to trade only with Britain. Activities
everywhere became linked to the growing world economy. A transition period occurred around the beginning of the 19th
century as mercantilism began to fade. The American colonies gained their independence. Trading companies in the East went
bankrupt and European countries were at war. However, 'the vast fortune made from the trade in commodities and especially
the triangular trade was fueling the Industrial Revolution and giving Europeans more power to launch a more intensive and
extensive form of colonialism.
Industrial capitalism
Wealthy merchants in the trading ports of Britain — London, Liverpool, Bristol — wanted cheaper sources of raw materials
and new markets for their goods. Africa would provide both and the scramble for African territory began. Between 1884 and
1914 Europeans arbitrarily carved up and distributed African territory among themselves ignoring existing geographical and
tribal divisions. Raw materials were needed and agricultural production in Africa and other colonies was restructured through
the establishment of plantations or the amalgamation of holdings. The range of crops was narrowed sometimes to one or two
needed by the metropolitan country. Labour was forced into mines by taxes and where insufficient labour existed workers
were brought in from other countries. Markets were also needed for Western goods and where local manufacturers were seen
to be a threat, they were suppressed. Large plants processing sugar and tobacco spra.ng up in British towns such as Liverpool,
Glasgow and London.
Towns were the centres of administrative control. They were also centres of the retailing of imported manufactures and the
manufacture of small consumer goods. Much of the activity in Africa and Asia was in the hands of non-European immigrant
groups. Just one or two centres were selected for development and this gave rise to urban primacy that is still a feature today.
Within the cities there were the spacious European areas separated from the crowded indigenous quarters.
The call for independence came after the Second World War. Some colonial powers withdrew more gratefully than others.
The legacy of colonialism
Britain was fortunate in that it discovered large quantities of coal which was used in the development of early industries and
which set it on a path to prosperity. However, the contribution of its colonies cannot be denied. The profits from West Indian
sugar were huge and while some of it might have been spent on ostentatious displays, much entered the banking system,
which released investment funds to industrialists. British towns prospered through shipping, trade and manufacturing.
In the Caribbean:
 British trade regulations prevented contact with neighboring countries settled by different colonial powers. This has
stifled local economic cooperation and has prevented the region from capitalizing on what economists refer to as
‘complementarities’. It has prevented the emergence of regional trade patterns.
 Colonial policy discouraged the production of goods in the colonies which could compete with metropolitan exports.
This retarded development in the colonies while promoting it at home.
 A dichotomy was created between export agriculture which was promoted by colonial policies, while the poorer, local
farmer tended to be neglected. ,
 The focus was on a limited range of primary products and this has persisted.
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 The Caribbean and colonies in general became exporters of primary products and importers of manufactured goods.
Britain exported manufactured goods and imported primary products. As commodity prices fall, the terms of trade
move in favour of countries exporting manufactured goods.
 There was a spatial concentration of activities — urban primacy, Plantations, mining towns — that created regional
inequalities.
Colonialism imposed a pattern of trade and development that reflected then needs and desires of the colonial power. The
pattern became ingrained and remained substantially unchanged under later models of development.
Rostow's model of development
In Module 9, reference was made to the modernization theory of the American economist, Walter Rostow. Rostow felt that
economic development was inevitable for all countries. LDCs were simply at an early Stage along the single development path
that was already followed by developed economies. Internal factors such as poor infrastructure, illiteracy, traditions were
responsible for their underdevelopment. However, these factors could be changed by capital transfer and technology. That
single path towards development was marked by several stages.
Stage 1: Traditional society
The economy is dominated by subsistence activity where output is consumed by producers rather than traded. Agriculture is
the most important activity and production is labour intensive using only limited quantities of capital. '
Stage 2: Transitional stage (the preconditions for takeoff)
An entrepreneurial elite emerges and they begin to organize the society as a political unit. Transportation links and supporting
infrastructure are developed. Increased specialization generates surpluses for internal trading. External trade also occurs
concentrating on primary products.
Stage 3: Take-off
When the growth of investment and savings reaches about 10 per cent of national income, the take-off to sustained growth
occurs. This lasts or about 29 to 30 Years during which new industries are established and Workers switch from the
agricultural sector to the manufacturing sector. Growth is concentrated in a few regions of the country and in one or two
manufacturing industries. There are new political and social institutions that support the industrialisation. The growth is now
self – sustaining as investment leads to increasing incomes in turn generating more savings to finance further investment.
Stage 4: Drive to maturity
Modem technology is now being applied to all phases of economic activity. The economy is diversifying into new areas and is
producing a wide range of goods and services. The economy is more self-sufficient.
Stage 5: High mass consumption
Consumer goods and services rather than heavy industry become the leading economic sectors. Consumption levels are
beyond basic needs. The economy is geared towards mass consumption.
Criticisms
Critics claim that Rostow’s theory was intended to demonstrate the advantages of Western development and to contain the
influence of the USSR in LDCs. It was developed in the early years of the Cold War and based they say, on the Marshall Plan
under which the US extended aid to European countries for reconstruction after the Second World War. The Plan was highly
successful as during the period Europe experienced the fastest level of economic growth in its history. Such was its success
that all communist parties in Western Europe lost popularity. However, the critics point out, that aid to Europe was for
rebuilding and not growth, Europe had the institutions and the infrastructure before the war.
Moreover, industrializing countries such as the US in this period lacked surplus labour, depended on immigrants and had the
incentive to adopt technological solutions. So there was a gulf between the historical conditions that gave rise to success in
MDCs and those in LDCs.
Many LDCs have not moved beyond the transitional stage in spite of the fact that they have imported the technologies of
MDCs and that there has been substantial inflows of foreign investment and aid. Capital accumulation is not sufficient for
development. As discussed in an earlier module, many Caribbean countries adopted import substitution industrialization but
were hampered, especially in the smaller islands by a lack of resources as well as the absence of the economies of scale which
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would make this sector profitable, the balance of payments problems worsened because of the need to import capital goods;
protection made the industries inefficient and their products costly. As in many LDCs, industrial development stagnated and
died. Most Caribbean countries do not rely on industry, as post development industrialization by invitation strategies failed to
produce sustained manufacturing activity and growth. Instead they have turned to services.
However, that transition was made by several countries in the East - the so-called Asian Tigers’. This demonstrates the
problem of applying grand theories to all countries regardless of their histories and cultures. It demonstrates that success could
be achieved with state intervention under authoritarian regimes.
Rostow’s theory is also criticized because it does not set down the detailed nature of the preconditions for growth. It is
therefore difficult for LDCs like the Caribbean to use it as a blueprint for development. Policymakers are unable to clearly
identify stages, making it difficult to apply to places at different stages of development. Finally, it is essentially a growth model
and does not address the issue of development or disparities in the wider context.
Dependency theory
The dependency school is associated with the writings of scholars who worked in Latin America and the Caribbean and
emerged in the 1970s. They argued that the causes of underdevelopment were not the internal conditions of LDCs but the
role they played in the global capitalist system, their dependence on MDCs. The underdevelopment in LDCs is the direct
result of development in the metropole.
Dependence created centre-periphery relationships not only internationally but also internally. A chain of exploitative
relationships extended from the peasant to the market town, through primate cities to the metropole, with the terms of trade
always working in favour of the next highest level. The structure of underdeveloped and developed was self-perpetuating in
that poor countries imported high value-added goods and exported low-value goods. Therefore, export earnings were
insufficient to pay for imports and surplus value was siphoned off from LDCs to MDCs.
Advocates of the dependency theory argue that only substantial reform of the world capitalist system and a redistribution of
assets will ’free’ LDCs from poverty cycles and enable development to occur. Measures that the MDCs could take would
include the elimination of world debt. Otherwise, the LDCs such as the Caribbean would need to ’free themselves’ by erecting
trade barriers, creating regional trading areas and having greater control over the activities of transnational corporations in
their countries. Greater integration into the global economy, they argue, is not necessarily a good choice.
 Some critics have questioned the inevitability of the cycle of underdevelopment and point to success stories in LDCs.
More specific class-based analysis is needed.
 Subsidies and protection would reduce incentives to improve products and efficiency.
 Little attention is paid to the cultural dimensions of domination.
Small Island Developing States (SIDS)
These legacies are not the only challenges faced by Caribbean islands.
The islands are small and there is increasing sensitivity to the fact that there are particular problems related to their size,
combined with their insularity and proneness to natural disasters. There is no internationally accepted definition of SIDS.
However, they were given political identity in 1991 when the Alliance of Small Island States was established. There are about
41 members scattered over the Caribbean, Atlantic and Pacific oceans. The Pacific SIDS which include the Maldives, Tonga,
Seychelles, Solomon Islands and Samoa are among the smallest and most remote. 'Together they cover about 0.5 km2 and are
scattered over the largest ocean. The smallest is Nauru, only 21 km’. There is a rich literature on the implications of small size
and small economies. The problem, however, is to translate a realization of their vulnerability into a recognition of the need
for special treatment.
Examples of SIDS
 Caribbean nations: Antigua, Aruba, Barbados, Grenada, Dominica
 West Africa: Cape Verde Islands
 Eastern Africa: Comoros Islands, Mauritius, Seychelles
 Oceania: Cook Islands, Fiji, Kiribati, Federated States of Micronesia, Vanuatu
 Asia: Maldives, Cyprus
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Characteristics of SIDS
1. Size: These states are small in size, which limits their ability to develop effectively.
 Small land area restricts the amount of space available for economic activities, and there is often heavy competition
for differing land uses. For example, limited land space for agriculture means that the use of agricultural land for
housing or recreation reduces the amount of food which can be produced.
 Small physical size also results in high coastal population. Concentrations especially on more mountainous islands;
limited coastal flat land is densely settled, and this intensive land use can result in land degradation and pollution. ‘
 The small size of many islands limits the availability of physical resources which can be used in manufacturing, or m a
primary activity such as mining.
 Population size is also limited in SIDS; a small p0pulation reduces the available market for goods and services, making
production costs high since economies of scale are not readily available. Labour force skills may also be limited,
reducing the types of economic activity possible.
 High production costs and low economies of scale limit global competitiveness of industries.
2. Location
Many small islands are located in areas which are remote or isolated.
 For example, the Seychelles are located 1,000 km away from the nearest land and are not on major routes between
economic giants. This has implications for trade and development of economic activity in these islands.
 The farther away the islands are from other places the more difficult and hence more expensive it would be to engage
in trade, or to access markets.
 Transportation would be limited, depending on the size of the island, and high shipping or transport costs may price
products out of the market for many SIDS.
 Some islands are extremely fragmented, especially those countries made up of multiple small islands, such as Polynesia
or Micronesia. This makes it more difficult as natural resources are likely to be unevenly distributed.
 Apart from the high per unit cost of transport, insularity and remoteness from the main commercial centres may also
give rise with additional problems such as time delays and unreliability in transport services which can create
uncertainties in the provision of industrial supplies. These disadvantages are greater for island chains that are spread
out over a wide area such as the Cook Islands, located in the Pacific Ocean, with a total land area of 240 knots but
spread over 2.2 million km’-.
 An additional problem is that when transport is not frequent and/ or regular, enterprises in islands find it difficult to
meet sudden changes in demand, unless they keep large stocks. This means an additional cost of production,
associated with tied up capital and rent of warehousing.
3. Vulnerability to disasters
Many SIDS are located in areas which are prone to natural disasters - hurricane, typhoon, volcanic activity, earthquakes.
Some are low lying or have a concentration of activity in narrow coastal strips.
 The Caribbean islands, for example, are vulnerable to volcanic and seismic activity as they are a volcanic island chain.
They are also vulnerable to hurricanes as they lie in the hurricane belt. Grenada was devastated by hurricane Ivan.
 Many Pacific islands lie on the edge of the Pacific tectonic plate, and are subject to frequent earthquakes and volcanic
activity. Small islands find it more difficult to recover from a natural disaster because resources are Limited, there is
nowhere to go to get away from the hazard; the small size of the country ensures that most people would be affected
in some way by bad weather or damage.
 The physical environment is subject to major damage - crops and vegetation is destroyed, infrastructure damaged,
homes lost.
4. Environmental vulnerability
The pressure on the environment arising from the process of economic development in SIDS tends to be much higher
than in other countries.
 Increased demand for residential housing and industrial production has given rise to fast depletion of agricultural land,
for example, in Barbados, agriculture land is being diverted to housing.
 There is intense use of the coastal zone for tourism and marine- related activities.
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 There is difficulty in disposing of the waste generated on small islands. I Economic development also bring an
increased demand for V resources, some of which are non-renewable.
 SIDS need to have unique ecosystems which make the islands important contributors to global diversity. But the
systems are fragile.
 A major environmental problem associated with islands is global warming and rising sea level. Many SIDS, especially
the low-lying coral atoll ones such as the Maldives are faced with the prospect of large land losses as a result of these
changes.
 SIDS have a relatively large coastline in relation to the land-mass. Thus a relatively large proportion of land in such
islands is exposed to sea waves and winds, giving rise to a relatively high degree of erosion of land and soil.
5. Debt burden
 Small economies often have difficulties in meeting the social and economic needs, especially if their resources are
limited. They then need to resort to borrowing, which means that much of their income must now be spent to service
their debts, especially paying interest. This restricts the amount that is available to spend on social services, and many
countries may remain in debt for years.
 Small size restricts the country’s ability to diversify its exports, and this makes the country dependent on a very narrow
range of goods and services. This means that the country then has too many eggs in one basket, notably tourism, and
thus intensifies the problems associated with dependence on international trade, for example most of the Caribbean
islands.
 Some islands have an excessive degree of dependence on foreign sources of finance including remittances from
emigrants and development assistance from donor countries.
 Small island developing states tend to be overly dependent on primary activities — agriculture, mining and fishing - as
there is limited economic activity in the secondary and tertiary sectors (see Module 5 - Economic Structure). This may
be due to limited capital investment due to the small population size, or the limited availability of foreign investment.
The returns on primary products are low, so the countries earn less money.
6. Governments
There are problems of public administration.
 There is a small manpower resource base from which to draw experienced and efficient administrators.
 Very often specialists can only be trained overseas in larger countries, without a guarantee that their services will be
needed on their return.
 Many specialists originating from SIDS decide to migrate to larger countries where their services are better utilized
and where remuneration is better.
 SIDS have to rely on larger states for certain specialized aspects of public administration.
 Government functions tend to be very expensive per capita when the population is small and overseas diplomatic
missions are often undermanned, or represented by roving ambassadors.
7. Government policies
SIDS tend to be heavily dependent on international trade and several of them are facing major difficulties in their
negotiations with the WTO, both in terms of financial costs and liberalization commitments. They are being urged to
undertake the same level of obligations, and to make extensive liberalization commitments, as large countries.
SIDS tend to be heavily dependent on trade taxes and on trade preferences, so that complying with the WTO rules is
likely to create a higher degree of difficulty for these states when compared to larger ones.
 The adoption of the WTO rules regarding subsidies is likely to hit small states harder than larger ones, due to the fact
that many SIDS rely on subsidies to counterbalance the relatively high per , unit costs of manufacturing.
 Another trade issue relates to dispute settlement arrangement. ; SIDS tend to find it extremely expensive to bring
cases and mount a WTO defense in Geneva.
8. Technology
SIDS are characterized by rich and diverse cultures of indigenous and traditional knowledge and technology; however:
 Many SIDS lack a critical mass of qualified scientists and associated institutions.
 Current reward systems in island countries do not encourage long- term careers in science.
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 There is limited availability of funds for training and research in specialized fields of science. -
 Brain drain adds to the scarcity of skills and expertise in relation to the advance of science.
 Technology development in SIDS is limited by small manpower and inadequate infrastructure that is dependent on
very few industries.
Britain may be considered a small island nation itself, especially when compared to other MDCs such as Canada and Australia.
However, it does not share many of the limitations of the SIDS. Despite its vulnerability mid-latitude storms, the country has
enough economic resources to recover from catastrophes. It has invested heavily in education, research and development, and
centres of excellence (especially at universities) are found all throughout the country.
The Consequences of Global Disparities
Economic
 Trade imbalances – MDCs export more finished products to LDCs than they may import. LDCs tend to export raw
materials; the rich get richer and the poor get poorer.
 Debt – LDCs often find themselves in severe debt to MDCs because they do not make enough money to satisfy the
needs of their populations.
 Loans/aid - given by MDCs and multilateral agencies to LDCs with stringent conditions.
 Structural adjustment policies – imposed on countries by international banks (See Module 12 for further details) are
sometimes at odds with national policies/decisions.
Political
 Military/popular maps – populations pressure governments for change; change may come violently if governments
are unable to meet needs. For example, Fiji.
 Civil wars – different groups in societies may fight over the rights to valuable natural resources, for example oil
resources in Nigeria.
 Adoption/rejection of ideology - countries may abandon ideologies to become more eligible for financial aid or
assistance; aid may be limited to ’friendly' countries, or driven by geographical advantage/ reward for political support
rather than humanitarian reasons.
 Democratization – most MDCs are democracies, and there is a strong drive to convert the rest of the world to this
system of government, especially through the process of globalization.
Social
 Migration – populations are highly mobile, as people leave their homes in search of better lives.
 Over-concentration of populations in some areas at the expense of others.
 Brain drain – highly trained and educated persons in LDCs often cannot find jobs, or their salaries at home are far too
low to satisfy their needs or wants. They move to MDCs, leaving a gap in the LDCs.
 Improvement in social services – living conditions of certain groups such as women and children are focused on and
improved, especially in LDCs.
Environmental
 Depletion of resources – the drive to reduce inequalities and increase economic development can result in the overuse
and depletion of natural resources.
 Degradation – the natural environment can be degraded by population pressure and the quest for economic
development; for example, filling in of swamps and marshes for crops, clearing of forests for cattle ranching as in the
Amazon.
 Pollution – economic activity has resulted in major pollution in both MDCs and LDCs. As LDCs play catch-up with
the rest of the world, pollution may be regarded as a natural by – product of economic activity, especially if they
cannot afford appropriate sustainable technologies.
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 Sustainable development – as a consequence of environmental degradation the need for sustainable development has
become very important in both MDCs and LDCs; appropriate technology plays an important role in ensuring that
sustainability is achieved. Examples are using wind energy to pump water; aquaculture, agro forestry.
One of the major consequences of global disparities in development has been the identification of the eight Millennium
Development Goals by the United Nations. These goals were designed to improve the living standards of people in the
developing countries of the world.
Governments have pledged to do their best to reach these goals by the year 2015. Some countries have already reached and
even passed a number of the goals, while others still have a significant way to go, and may not be able to make the necessary
changes by that time. However, even if the goals are not met, the process of change and improvement in the lives of people
would have been undertaken.
Key Points
 Poverty can be classified as absolute or relative.
 Life expectancy can accurately reflect the provision of health care in a country.
 Gender disparities are found in all countries – rich and poor.
 Models of development seek to explain disparities among and between countries and regions worldwide.
 Small Island developing states share several characteristics – both physical and human.
 The consequences of global disparities can have social, economic, political and environmental impacts on countries.
Conclusion
Disparities exist within and among countries and grand models which try to explore these are not without problems. The
disparities are rooted in historical, economic and environmental factors. These disparities have a number of consequences.
Populations become more mobile, migrating in search of new opportunities; governments may be toppled because they do not
provide development quickly enough for their people; environments arc degraded because of the overuse of resources in an
attempt to fuel development.
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End Test
1. Using the data for estimated earned income for males and females in Table 10.3, identify one method which could be used to present this
data graphically.
2. Explain the method of construction of the selected method.
3. Explain why development in the Caribbean may be constrained by: a smallness of size b natural hazards
End Test Feedback
1. A multiple bar graph is appropriate.
2. You should give a step – by – step guide to the construction. Anyone following your instructions should be able to create the graph which
you have identified as appropriate.
a. Select a suitable scale.
b. Arrange sex/country on X axis and earned income on Y.
c. Plot earned income for male and female for each country in columns.
d. Give title, key.
3. a. Smallness of size has led to very high population densities, as in Barbados (613 kmz).This means that there is limited land area available
for agricultural production, and the islands are, therefore, dependent on food imports, which can be very expensive, using up valuable
foreign exchange. High population densities are also - * common in urban areas, leading to traffic congestion, pollution, slum developments
and associated social conditions such as crime.
b. Natural hazards affect most islands of the ' Caribbean region, especially volcanoes, earthquakes and hurricanes. Montserrat (volcano)
and -Grenada (hurricane) provide the best and most recent examples of the consequences of these hazards. In Montserrat the eruption of
the Soufriere Hills volcano has destroyed the capital of Plymouth, forced the evacuation of most of the country's population, decimated the
economy (destroyed agriculture), and altered the physical landscape of the island. In addition, communities have been disrupted as people
have emigrated to other Caribbean islands or to the UK. In Grenada, hurricane Ivan destroyed the economy by flattening the nutmeg crops
on which the island depends, as well as destroying the infrastructure and most of the building stock, including hotels, resulting in the loss of
tourism revenue.
Since the Caribbean lies in the Atlantic hurricane belt, most of the islands are vulnerable to hurricanes and have been badly affected by
storms which have caused loss of life, as well as extensive property damage, which cost the island governments a great deal to repair and
rebuild. Similarly, the Caribbean plate is tectonically active, and earthquakes and volcanoes are common in the region. The financial damage
from these hazards is crippling to most Caribbean governments.
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11. REGIONAL AND LOCAL DISPARITIES IN DEVELOPMENT
General objective
On the completion of this model you should be able to understand the nature of development and this part is in development.
Specific objectives
 Analyze at regional and local levels of playing the model of Myrdal and Friedman
 Evaluating measures to overcome disparities
Introduction
The focus in Module 10 was on global disparities in development. Disparities are also evident on a regional and a local scale.
Persons within a country may have very different standards of living sometimes even when they live in close proximity. These
disparities are found even in the richest countries of the world. The terms ’regional’ and ’local’ are used in several senses. The
Caribbean, a collection of islands, is considered a region. So are sub – national units within individual countries such as the
Health Regions in Jamaica. The countries of the European Union form a region but there may be Justification for considering
southern Europe as a region. Many regard the term ‘local’ as referring to the size of a unit. A city is a local unit. However,
concepts such as local food or local customs are used at the level of a state or nation. What is important is ensuring that the
analysis is based on the units defined – north/south: county X/county Y: inner city/suburbs: urban/rural.
These regional and local disparities arise from differential development strategies or historical processes, and may also be the
result of the location or availability of resources within the country. Government policies also play a large role in determining
the type of development and where it occurs within the country.
The models of two theorists – Myrdal and Friedman – will be examined and applied to real situations Myrdal’s cumulative
causation model explains disparities in terms of backwash and spread, while Friedman argued that initially, at least, the core
grows at the expense of the periphery.
Content
 Myrdal’s cumulative causation model.
 The application of Myrdal’s cumulative causation model to regional variation.
 Friedman’s core – periphery model.
 The application of Friedman’s core – periphery model to urban – rural disparities.
 The application of Spearman’s rank correlation to measure disparities.
Myrdal's cumulative causation model
Gunnar Myrdal in 1955 developed the theory of cumulative causation to describe why disparities developed between
economic heartlands and peripheral areas (Figure l 1.1). In many countries there are wealthy and poor cities and regions. On
an international scale there are wealthy MDCs and depressed LDCs. He argued that once differences in growth became
established a process of cumulative causation polarizes development and perpetuates the pattern.
At the beginning, comparative advantages such as location and availability of natural resources provide the stimulus needed for
development in a particular place.
127
Figure 11.1 Myrdal's model of cumulative causation
The economic process that unfolds in the region is a combination of backwash and spread effects. For example, labour will be
drawn from surrounding regions; there may be capital flight from other regions. All the adverse effects on areas outside the
developing area are backwash effects. In addition, multiplier effects will enhance the core area. However, the development of
this core area would have some beneficial effects on the surroundings. There may be an increased demand for agricultural raw
materials; new secondary centres may emerge. These beneficial changes are the spread effects. Myrdal argued that poor
peripheries develop when spread effects are weak relative to backwash; that spread effects are relatively weak in developing
countries and international trade is the mechanism that produces inequalities; that inequalities are likely to develop under free
market forces.
Myrdal felt that to prevent this, there would need to be some form of state intervention; perhaps in the form of infrastructural
development in lagging regions, or the provision of incentives such as tax holidays or industrial estates. These would help to
stimulate growth, thus reducing the disparities between these growing and the lagging regions or countries.
Application of Myrdal to regional disparities in income
Disparities among regions in Brazil
Figure 11.2 shows the states of Brazil. They are grouped into five larger regions – the north and the north – east regions are
largely under – developed. In 2008 per capita output in the north – east was less than 50 per cent of the national average, 68.7
per cent in the north but much greater in the central and southern regions (Table 11.1).
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Poverty also decreased towards the south from 40.9
per cent in the north – east to 16.1 per cent. The
Human Development Index for Brazil shows life
expectancy, education and income moving in the same
direction. So regional differences in wealth were
accompanied by differences in significant social
indicators.
Even development
Up to the beginning of the 20th century, development
was based on the international trade in primary
products. Sugar cane and cotton were grown in the
north – east, rubber in the north, and gold and coffee
were produced in the centre south. The fortunes of the
region shifted with the vagaries of the export market
for the particular crop and no one region had the
advantage over the other. The shifting came to an end
in the late 19th century when the centre of gravity
moved to the centre south.
Table 11.1 Per Capita GDP Brazilian Region

Region Per Capita GDP %National average
North 10,997 68.7
North-east 7,345 45.9
Central-west 14,998 93.8
South-east 15,385 96.2
South 18,558 116
Brazil 15,989 100
Comparative advantage
This region had several advantages. There was an increase in world demand for coffee and producers in the centre south were
in a position to respond to this demand because large numbers of immigrants were settling in the region, and the British were
making heavy investments in infrastructure and technology. A currency devaluation at the end of the l9th century, together
with tariff protection, was of importance to the coffee producers as well as the fledgling industries that were developing in the
region. On the other hand, sugar producers in the north – east were encountering competition from beet sugar production in
Europe and sugar – cane producers in the Caribbean. There was a fall in price for sugar and producers were unable to
undertake technological improvements. World demand for cotton stagnated. In the 19th century the British had smuggled the
seeds of the rubber plant out of Brazil and established plantations in their colonies in the East. By the beginning of the 20th '
century Brazil could not compete with Asian producers. An important change in the direction of trade took place. The output
of the north – east was no longer entering the export trade. Cotton moved from the north – east to the centre south as the
basis of an emerging textile industry. The building of the railway connecting agricultural areas in the south with Rio de Ianeiro
facilitated the flow of raw materials.
Regional concentration
By the early 20th century regional dualism had emerged (Table 11.2).
Table 11.2 Population and Industrial output Brazil regions (1907)
Indicator North-east North Rest of the Country
% Population 39.0 4.0 44.5
% Industrial Output 16.7 4.3 58.2
Regional concentration increased when the state adopted the top – down import substitution industrial development in the
l950s in order to solve growing balance of payment problems. Investment went to the centre south and migrants removed into
129
the centre south. In 1920, the population of Rio de Ianeiro was 2 million. Ten years later it had almost doubled to 2,380,000
million. In 1930 the population of Sao Paulo was 3 million. In 1965, it was 6.5 million. Large numbers came in from the north
– east. In addition, there was a flight of private capital from the north – east to the centre south region. Moreover, under the
import substitution regime, goods produced in the centre south were protected and expensive. Poorer areas were forced to
consume these expensive products of the manufacturing region. These were the backwash effects, the negative consequences
of growth in the centre south. There were spread effects in the form of the agricultural products and raw materials purchased
from peripheral areas, but under the free play of market forces regional – disparity was at a critical level 'm the 19503. With
31.7 per cent of the population in 1960, the north – east was responsible for just 14.8 per cent of national income.
State intervention
As Myrdal intimated, regional disparities are likely to develop under free market forces and in the 19603, the state became
increasingly concerned about the regional inequalities. There were direct investments in regional development projects and
infrastructure in the north and north – east; tax and financial incentives to the private sector in poorer areas.
But investment in the north and north – east was spotty with dynamic regional poles (metal mining and petrochemical
complexes coexisting with traditional (sugar canes, cocoa) structures with low productivity. In addition, after 1975 there was
de – concentration from major cities. Rio de Janeiro declined with the movement of the capital to Brasilia. Séo Paulo lost
manufacturing to adjacent states because of agglomeration diseconomies. Many information processing and communication
technology firms moved out in the 19908, although the headquarters remained in Séo Paulo. But disparities between
north/north – east and south central {Figure 11.3) and between their urban centres remain. The HDR for Brazil was 0.807 in
2008. It ranged from 0.833 in Séo Paulo to 0.683 in Maranhao and 0.67 in Alagoas, both in the north – east. Similarly there
were three income ranges. The income index (Figure 11.4) for the south of the country ranged from 0.700 to 0.799. The range
in the north and most of the north – east was 0.600 to 0.699 and for the two protest states in the north – east, 0.500 to 0.599.
Figure 11.3 Human Development Index. Brazilian Regions (2008)
130
Activity 11.1
1. Explain how backwash effects relate to industrial development.
2. What is the likely impact of backwash effects on industrial development in the absence of intervention?
Feedback
1. Industrial growth in the core has negative effects on peripheral areas. Peripheral areas might suffer from brain drain, or there may be a flight
of capital. The development of a local manufacturing base is hindered in the periphery because of the products coming in from the core. All
investment is focused on the core.
2. The most likely impact of backwash effects in the absence of intervention is an increase in regional inequalities. Further investment and
development is concentrated in the core at the expense of the periphery. The core may continue to grow, becoming a primate city.
3. It is easy to make false correlations; a significant relationship does not necessarily indicate a causal one.
131
Spearman’s Rank Correlation Coefficient (Rs)
This is designed to measure whether or not there is a significant statistical
correlation or relationship between two sets of data. The data available must
be ranked on an ordinal scale, and the ranks are correlated, not the actual
values. There are some limitations associated with the use of Spearman.
1. It requires a sample size of at least seven.
2. It tests for linear relationships.
3. It is easy to make false correlations; a significant relationship does not
necessarily indicate a casual one.
Using Spearman
1. State the null hypothesis; that is, there is no relationship between poverty
incidence and life expectancy (from Table 11.3 below). The alternative
hypothesis is that there is a relationship between poverty incidence and
life expectancy.
2. Rank both sets of data from high to low; the highest value {or most
desirable condition) is ranked l. For variables such as infant mortality, the
lowest value would be ranked l since this is the most desirable condition. Where ranks are tied, find the average rank.
Therefore, if two values are both ranked second, the rank of both would be (2 + 3)/2. = 2.5; if there are three values tied,
the rank would be (2+3+4)/3=3.
∑
3. Work out the correlation using the formula: 1
Where is the difference between the ranks, and is the number of variables.
Property Property Life Expectancy Life Expectancy at
Region Incidence Incidence Rank at Birth Birth Rank d d²
NCR 4.9 1 70.0 3 2 4
CAR 15.3 2 66.2 13 11 121
Ilocos Region 16.9 4 69.5 4 0 0
Cagayan Valley 26.2 6 67.0 10 4 16
Central Luzon 13.6 3 70.9 1 -2 4
Southern Luzon 20.8 5 68.9 5 0 0
Bicol Region 45.7 14 68.6 7.5 -6.5 42.25
Western Visayas 26.7 7 68.3 9 2 4
Central Visayas 36.6 11 70.7 2 -9 81
Eastern Visayas 45.0 13 65.6 14 1 1
Western Mindanao 49.7 15 66.3 12 -3 9
Northern Mindanao 29.8 9 68.6 7.5 -1.5 2.25
Southern Mindanao 26.8 8 68.8 6 -2 4
Central Visayas 34.1 10 66.5 11 1 1
ARMM 63.4 16 54.2 16 0 0
Caraga 36.9 12 64.8 15 3 9
TOTAL 298.5
6∑ 6 298.5 1791
1 1 1 1 0.4 0.561
16 16 4080
Compare the computed Rs with the critical values for a given level of significance in the statistical tables. (Critical values are
the levels above which the result is statistically significant – usually 95 or 99 per cent).
The closer the value is to + 1 or – 1, the stronger the correlation between the two variables. This result shows that there is a
correlation between the incidence of poverty and life expectancy in the Philippines. Using the critical values table above, there
is a higher than 95 per cent level of significance attached to the result of this example. This means that there is only a 5 per
cent or less possibility that the correlation between these variables occurs by chance. It is therefore possible to speculate that
poverty does have a major impact on life expectancy in the Philippines.
132
Activity 11.2
Table 11.4 Selected indices of development
Purchasing Power Parity
Country Population Growth Per Capita GNP (US$) (US$ per Capita)
Costa Rica 1.89 4,300 9,140
Brazil 1.20 2,720 7,510
Dominican Rep. 2.10 2,130 6,310
El Salvador 2.00 2,340 4,910
Jamaica 1.50 2,980 3,790
United Kingdom 0.24 28,320 27,690
Trinidad and Tobago 0.70 7,790 10,390
Venezuela 1.71 3,490 4,750
Haiti 1.90 400 1,730
Honduras 2.50 970 2,590
You are asked to test whether there is a significant relationship between population growth and per capita GNP as shown in Table 11.4.
1. State the null hypothesis.

∑
2. Using the formula for spearman’s rank coefficient, 1 Calculate the value of (show all steps in you calculation.)
3. State the nature of the relationship between population growth and per capita GNP.
4. What additional step is needed to confirm whether the relationship is significant?
Feedback
1. There is no significant relationship between population growth and per capita GNP.
2.
2
6∑d
Rs =1-
n3 -n
192
Rs =1-
990
Rs =1-0.193
Rs =0.807
Rs =0.81
3. There is a strong relationship between population growth and per capita GNP.
4. The value of Rs should be compared to the table of critical values to determine the significance of the answer.
Friedmann’s Core – Periphery Model

Friedmann’s version of the core – periphery model (Figure 11.6) could be applied at several geographical levels –
international, regional and local. He outlined the process in a four – stage model.
Stage 1: Pre – industrial economy
This represents a pre – colonial stage, with independent local centres which are isolated and self – sufficient. There is no
hierarchy, nor surplus product; each centre stands alone and there is a stable pattern of settlement and development. In this
stage, most of the country is engaged in primary activities. '
Stage 2: Transitional economy
A single strong centre is established due to some external influence, that is, colonialism. Change becomes more dynamic.
Growth occurs rapidly in one main region, resulting in urban primacy. The growing manufacturing sector encourages
133
investment in a few centres, creating the core region along with the primacy city. This centre uses the resources of the
periphery, but this situation is unstable according to Friedmann.
Stage 3: Industrial economy.
A single national centre develops with strong peripheral sub – centres. There is a breakdown of the simple core – periphery
structure as sub – cores develop with intervening peripheries. Development moves to the periphery but is spatially
concentrated.
Stage 4: Post – industrial economy
There is a functionally interdependent system of cities, with the elimination of the periphery. No one country has actually
reached this stage, although Friedmann has argued that the United States has in fact reached Stage four. He does, however,
acknowledge the poverty in the peripheral region of the Appalachian hills. The first two stages of the model describe the
situation of most LDCs. Friedmann argues that the core – periphery relationship is a colonial one, and the uneven growth and
urban concentration arise out of the colonial pattern of settlement. On the face of it, he seems to be arguing that disparities in
income and welfare will disappear in time. Yet, he observed that actual cases of this type of convergence are absent. Like
Myrdal, he sees state intervention as being necessary to move development from Stage 2 to Stage 3.
Figure 11.6 Friedmann's core – periphery model

Core – periphery and urban rural disparities in colonial Malaya
Early development
From very early, Malaya was known as a source of important raw materials such as tin and gold. The importance of the
country was enhanced by its location along the trade routes to the East. Traders from India and China regularly visited the area
and some settled along the coast where they traded in spices – pepper, cloves, nutmegs – as well as silks. The tin deposits
along the west coast in Perak, Selangor and Negeri Sembilan were particularly attractive and the Chinese became involved in a
rudimentary ' form of tin mining. Islam was brought to Malaya around the 14th century and the sultanates of Malacca and later
Perak and Johor were established.
134
The Portuguese were the first Europeans to show an interest in the country. They were followed by the Dutch East India
Company and then the British East India Company. The British acquired trading posts in Penang, Malacca and Singapore –
The Straits Settlements – and these became bases for a growing trade with China. Activities on the peninsula centred around
tin mining and near Selengor a small settlement began to develop at the muddy confluence of two rivers – Kuala Lumpur.
Elsewhere, the Malays and indigenous peoples were engaged in a subsistence economy.
A chaotic situation existed on the peninsula with conflict between Chinese miners, Malay sultans and minor rulers. Britain
argued that any disturbance in the settlements would hurt their interests and ' they intervened initially in the tin – producing
states. These were later consolidated and Kuala Lumpur became the seat of British administration in 1880. In time the British
controlled all of the Malay peninsu.la and Sabah and Sarawak on the island of Borneo.
The colonial presence
There was direct foreign investment in the tin industry and British activities were grafted on to the Chinese rough efforts. The
expansion of the trade was driven by the Industrial Revolution. There was a need for raw materials and Malaya was well placed
to supply these. The investors introduced new technology which demanded substantial capital giving the Europeans the
advantage over the Chinese and they soon dominated output. Labour was supplied by large waves of immigrants from China
and India. There was, in addition, an influx of Chinese from the less thriving mines in Penang and Malacca to the mining area
around Kuala Lumpur. As minerals were channeled through Kuala Lumpur the population grew due to the arrival of more
traders. Commerce and trade rapidly developed. Rural Malays were also attracted to the developing city.
Kuala Lumpur developed primarily as the British administrative and commercial centre. The British arrived in three waves.
The pioneer traders were followed by administrators and then the consolidators such as engineers, road builders, and teachers.
There was little manufacturing in Kuala Lumpur as the culture of the British favoured commerce over industry. Local
manufacturers would reduce import duty revenue to the government and raise the prices of goods consumed by plantation
workers putting pressure on wage levels. There was some processing of primary exports and limited production for the local
market. Most of this was in the hands of the Chinese. It was a typical colonial city ruled by the British though dominated
numerically by the Chinese. In 1800 the population of Kuala Lumpur was 18,000. By 1947 it was 75,000. Each racial group –
whites, Chinese, Indians, Malays – had its own centre.
At first, agricultural commodities – coffee, sugar cane, tea, peppers, rubber – were planted by the Chinese and Indians in the
vicinity of ports such as Malacca. However, as the demand for rubber grew with the development of the motor car industry in
Europe and the US, planting had w move to rural areas. The Malays in rural areas used water transport for petty trading
among dispersed settlements. A more efficient means of opening up the country had to be found. There was a need also for a
means of linking mining towns. Roads and a rail system were built and the main purpose of the communication system was to
transfer resources from rural areas to the port for export. The north/south line extended throughout the peninsula with a
shorter line extending to the east coast. Large rubber plantations were established by British interests and Indians were
brought in to work on the plantations. The British pursued a policy, especially in the north, of encouraging rural Malays to
engage in rice rather than the more profitable rubber cultivation less this threatened plantation interests. The rail connections
to the ports facilitated the transfer of raw materials for shipment to Europe and the US. By 1903, 340 miles of rail had been
laid down.
With the building of the rail system a number of lower – level resource based towns developed – mining towns, collection
centres in rubber – growing districts, rail junctions, district headquarters. Development occurred in the periphery but was
highly concentrated in resource rich areas. An entirely new urban hierarchy was created by the British in Malaya. Between
these islands of development, the rural Malay population on the peninsula as well as the many indigenous people in Sabah and
Sarawak were involved in a largely subsistence economy growing rice, maize, yams, a little rubber on smallholdings, fishing and
breeding buffaloes.
State intervention at independence
As in most colonial territories there was an ethnic division of labour. The Chinese were traders, Indians laborers, Malayans
farmers. Poverty was embedded in the ethnic division of labour and, therefore, had an urban rural dimension. This was the
cause of conflict and at independence in 1957 the state sought to correct this. Spurred on by riots in the 1960s the state
135
undertook to eradicate poverty and restructure the society. With the expansion for opportunities for the rural population
inequalities have been reduced, but the gap is still wide. In 1990 rural income on the peninsula represented, 58 per cent of the
urban. In Sabah and Sarawak it was 60 per cent and 54 per cent respectively. On the peninsula, the poorest states are in the
east – Kedah, Perak, Kelantan, Terenggany. Disparities remain.
The dependency model, as well as those developed by Myrdal and Friedmann, are all versions of core – periphery
development – the growth of centres which may be a metropolitan country, a region or a town at the expense of peripheral
locations in LDCs, pool regions or rural areas.
Activity 11.3
Study Figure 11.7 which shows Stages 1 and 2 of Friedmann’s core-periphery model and answer the questions which follow.
1. Describe the change that occurs between Stages 1 and 2.

2. Myrdal suggested that once differences in growth occurred in a region, market forces would perpetuate inequalities. Explain why in Myrdal's
view, the inequalities persisted in a region.
Feedback.
1. Between Stages1 and 2 an external influence (colonialism) would stimulate growth in one of the core areas, causing it to grow larger than
the other core areas. It would become a primate city as this would be the focus of investment, especially in economic activity such as
industry. This core would become very much larger than the other areas, and have strong pull factors attracting migrants into the town,
causing it to grow even larger.
2. Inequalities persist in an area because without the intervention of the state, the market forces would continue to increase the inequalities.
Industrial development in the periphery would be hindered by the loss of capital and labour. Any spread effects which might occur due to
growth in the core would be limited, and only extend a short distance outside the core into the periphery, thus allowing inequalities to persist.
136
Key Points
 Inequalities exist between regions in both MDCs and LDCs.
 Regional inequalities may be made worse if governments do not specifically intervene.
 The core and periphery models may be applied at many levels – local to international.
 Positive spread effects may help improve the periphery and reduce inequalities.
 Negative backwash effects perpetuate regional inequalities.
Conclusion
Regional and local inequalities may be based on differences in the availability of natural resources, but they are more often the
consequence of government policies and investment strategies. Many inequalities have their beginning in the colonial period,
when at least were developed because of certain comparative advantages they may have had such as flat land, easy access to
ports and coastal locations. Myrdal and Friedmann propose a core – periphery situation, where one area develops at the
expense of the rest of country. Inequalities may be perpetuated by development, but maybe reduced if not eliminated by
government policies which encourage the growth and development of rural areas.
End Test
The models of Friedman and Myrdal as well as the dependency theory are all based on the observation that:
 there are contrasts in development between the core and peripheral zones
 the growth of the core takes place at the expense of the periphery.
Discuss each observation with respect to EACH model as well as to the dependency theory.
End Test Feedback
Introduction
You should mention that the models identified deal with the issue of regional inequalities. They can be applied at a number of levels – from local
to international. But the syllabus specifies application level – students will be penalized for, straying outside of syllabus specification.
Body of essay
For each model: Identify the areas considered to be core and those regarded as periphery. Give as many specific, examples/case studies as
possible.
With respect to statement 1: Describe the difference between the core and periphery according to each model –
what makes the core different from the periphery?
What are the characteristics of the core?
What are the characteristics of the periphery?
Where do they tend to be located?
Make reference to diagrams where possible in order to enhance your response.
With respect to statement 2: Account for the differences seen between the core and periphery according to each by answering the questions: how
does the core grow because of the periphery? In what way does the periphery help the core? In what ways does the core hinder development in
the periphery? Why don’t they grow together? Always refer to each model when a response is given.
Example: The periphery, made up of the countries of the developing world or LDCs according to the dependency theory, cannot grow at the same
rate as the core because the core (MDCs) used the resources provided by the LDCs to fuel their development and growth. Colonialism saw the
development of the MDCs as they made use of the natural resources provided by their colonies. For example, Britain profited from the sugar
grown in the Caribbean colonies such as Barbados. The export of this sugar helped the economy of Britain, but did little to advance development
in Barbados, especially in the rural periphery. The sale of this raw material in a relatively unprocessed state earned little revenue for the island;
there were few linkages with other associated industries such as food processing which could have added value to the product.
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12. MEASURES TO OVERCOME DISPARITIES
General objective
On the completion of this model you should be able to understand the nature of development and this part is in development.
Specific objectives
 Evaluating measures to overcome disparities
Introduction
Aid, or overseas development assistance as it is also known, refers to the help given by one country or group of countries to
another. This help can be financial, and involve the flow of money in the form of loans and grants, or it can mean technical
support and skilled personnel. Aid can be given over a long period to assist with development programmes, or it can be sent
to a country immediately following a natural disaster such as a hurricane or flood. Most aid flows from MDCs to LDCs, and
may be given bilaterally or multilaterally.
The issue of debt relief is tied closely to aid in the LDCs which often need development assistance to repay the many loans
they have accumulated over the years. A call has been made in recent years for Third World debt to be forgiven as very poor
countries are often heavily burdened by high debt repayments, which hamper their ability to successfully meet their
development goals. The high level of debt and the accompanying interest also mean that it is most unlikely that these countries
will ever pay off their outstanding loans.
The use of appropriate technology is an effective way to reduce disparities, especially within a country, and appropriate
technology can also be given as development assistance. Using appropriate technology often means using locally developed
techniques and tools, which can work to the advantage of the country and its people. Inappropriate technology use can often
lead to wastage of resources, as well as _ efficiency and frustration on the part of the local population.
Content
 Aid forms or types, global patterns (donors, recipients), impact, effectiveness, conditionalities.
 Debt relief.
 Appropriate technology.
Forms of Aid
The term ’Foreign Aid’ refers to any money or resources such as goods, services, medicines, trained personnel, food and
weapons that are transferred from one country to another without expecting full repayment. Official Development Assistance
(ODA) includes all grants and soft loans that are intended to transfer resources from MDCs to LDCs with the intention of
fostering economic development.
Grants usually take the form of financial assistance, but they are not expected to be repaid. Grants are provided to developing
countries, usually targeting specific development areas, especially those which have great potential for change within the
receiving country. These include education and health. Grants can be given as part of project aid, where aid is given for a
particular project or scheme, such as a small – scale irrigation project.
In Jamaica, USAID is providing grants through the Rural Enterprise, Agriculture and Community Tourism (REACT) Project
to small community – based organizations such as the Windsor Castle Farmers Group in St Mary’s parish which grows
vegetables – tomatoes, cabbages, sweet peppers, scotch bonnet peppers – to be sold to local markets and food processors.
USAID’s assistance allowed the group to obtain the financing needed to acquire drip irrigation system and water tanks to
provide a consistent supply of water for irrigation and fertilization of the crops. There is an existing market for the vegetables
and the acquisition of the tanks and drip system has allowed for the increase in production and ultimately an increase in sales
and an improvement in the standard of living of the farmers in the rural areas. As the group produces more crops on a
consistent basis, employment opportunities for persons in the community will also be increased.
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Progmmme or Long – term aid is provided to improve long – term standards of living in a Country or area. These may
include programmes to improve agricultural productivity, or improvements in water supply and sanitation through the
provision of wells and pumps.
Soft Loans are loans made under generous terms, that is, the repayment period is very generous, or the interest rates are
below the prevailing market rate. These loans tend to be given to developing countries by international agencies such as the
World Bank. This can be considered one form of multilateral aid.
Foreign aid can be further divided into Public Development Assistance and Private Development Assistance.
Public or Official Development Assistance includes individual government assistance, known as bilateral aid as well as
multilateral donor agencies such as the International Monetary Fund and World Banks offering multilateral aid.
Private Development Assistance comes from private non – governmental organizations (NGOs) such as the Red Cross, Save
the Children ox Oxfam.
Bilateral aid is one of the most common types of aid given. This aid tends to flow directly from one country to another.
Bilateral aid may be given for development projects or as relief funds after a natural or other disaster‘ A]though official
development assistance has grown in absolute terms, it has declined sharply as a percentage of donor countries’ GDP in recent
years‘ In 1970, MDCs pledged to give at least 0.7 per cent of their national income in aid to developing countries, but by 2002
only five countries (Norway, Denmark, Sweden, the Netherlands and Luxembourg) had reached that target‘ The wealthier
countries are also among the least generous – in 2003, the US gave just 0.14 per cent Of their national income in aid; Japan
gave 0.2 per cent, Germany gave 0.28 per cent.
Food aid is one of the more Common forms of bilateral aid, with many countries giving money and other resources to areas
which are experiencing wide spread famine because of drought or civil war (which can interrupt food supplies), The Sahel
region of North Africa is one such place which has constantly been on the receiving end of this type of aid in recent years.
However, many OECD countries have actually reduced the amount of money sent in aid to these countries, and the World
Food Program (WFP) which administers this aid has indicated that this could be catastrophic for those living with the threat
of famine. Children are particularly at risk, as inadequate nutrition often clears the way for them to suffer from such diseases as
measles and whooping cough – treatable and largely eradicated in MDCs, but life threatening and widespread in LDCs.
Benefits of aid:
 Provides investment for projects and development which would not otherwise have been undertaken.
 Helps expand infrastructure: roads, railways, ports, power generation.
 Aid which directly supports economic, social or environmental policies can result in successful programmes.
 Meets immediate needs of the population; for example, relief supplies after a disaster.
Disadvantages of aid:
 Tied – aid obliges the country receiving aid to spend it on goods and services from the donor country, which are likely
to be expensive.
 Inappropriate technology may be given. For example, tractors are of little use without a ready supply of spare parts
and fuel.
 Funds can go towards the building of expensive, prestigious buildings, such as hospitals, which mainly help the urban
rich, rather than the majority rural poor.
 Large – scale building projects, such as dams, may damage the environment and force people off the land.
 The unreliability of the flow of aid may be destabilizing and disrupt development programmes.
 Aid may never reach the people who need it, but instead be used for the benefit of corrupt officials.
 Aid on its own does not provide a lasting solution to poor countries’ needs.
Multilateral aid is aid provided through international institutions The World Bank and the IMF (International Monetary Fund)
are economic institutions which aim to foster economic growth and high levels of employment, and give temporary loans and
financial assistance to relieve debt. Key positions in these organizations are held by members of international governments.
Aid is also provided by various UN agencies including:
139
 UNICEF (United Nations Children’s Fund) which aims to build a protective environment for children and provide
them with health and education
 UNDP and UNEP (United Nations Development Programme/ Environment Programme) which focus on the
elimination of poverty and environmental protection
 UNESCO (United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization) which aims to encourage international
peace and universal respect by promoting collaboration among countries
 FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization) which leads international efforts to eliminate hunger
 UNHCR (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees) protects refugees and helps them to restart their lives .
 UNAIDS provides information and support in the fight against HIV/ AIDS
 WHO (World Health Organization) works to combat disease and promote health
Disadvantages of multilateral aid
The IMF and the World Bank have a history of making loans to countries on the condition that those countries first accept
Western free-market economic policies, privatize their public services and liberalize trade. These strategies are often grouped
together as neo-liberalization policies, and make up the structural adjustment policies to be followed by the countries.
Conditionalities
When countries accept loans from other countries, or international agencies, there are often a set of conditions which must be
met by the borrowing country. These conditionalities may also dictate what the funds are to be used for, and where and when
they are to be given out. According to the IMF, when a country borrows money, its government agrees to adjust its economic
policies to overcome the problems that led it to seek financial aid in the first place. These loan conditions also serve * as a
guarantee that the country will be able to repay the Fund. The IMF monitors the way in which the money loaned is used by
the borrowing country, especially since the money is not all given at once, but in phases. Countries must satisfy the conditions
of each phase before the next set of funds is released.
Countries may be required to meet particular targets or objectives [outcomes-based conditionality) or take particular actions
(actions - based conditionality}. Terms of conditionality are always based on the individual circumstances of the borrowing
country. Countries may be required to meet prior actions (taken before the money is given), as well as benchmarks (conditions
to be met during a financing period).
In some countries, the number of conditionalities which must be met in order to access funds from the IMF or World Bank
can be extremely high. Eurodad (a civil society group which monitors development issues) has found that on average, poor
countries face as many as 67 conditions to access a World Bank loan. Uganda had 197 conditions attached to a 2005
development finance grant by the World Bank. In addition to creating a major administrative burden for borrowing countries,
these conditionalities often go against the development policies of the borrowing governments. Countries may be forced to
adopt controversial economic policy reforms, especially trade liberalization and privatization of essential services. If trade is
liberalized, this means that any barriers in place to protect local industries would be removed. Local products' would have to
compete with imported goods, which may be cheaper. Privatization of essential services such as transport removes any
government subsidy which may make it affordable to the majority of the population. Private companies are there to make the
enterprise profitable; and may drive the cost of the services out of the reach 0f most citizens. Conditionalities can, therefore,
have a harmful impact on poor People: increasing their poverty rather than reducing it and denying them access to vital
services. .
Non-governmental aid and charity aid

Less than 10 per cent of all aid is collected by non-governmental organisation (NGOS) through Voluntary donations.
Although charities occasionally collect funds for emergency aid, aid from NGOS and charities is usually aimed at long – term
development. International charities also raise awareness and campaign for change in industrialized nations.
Money raised by NGOs and international charities goes towards:

1. Long – term aid such as:
140
dealing with the root causes of poverty
campaigning for change
health programmes such as Medicine Sans Frontieres, Doctors without Borders): maintaining basic health
facilities, eradicating malaria and other diseases
 food production, water supplies, education
 technical assistance, for example training farmers to increase efficiency and prevent soil erosion.
2. Short – term/emergency aid:
 helping refugees to rebuild homes and provide farming equipment in order to enable them to be self – sufficient
 medical and sanitation supplies
 food and blankets.
Potential problems with international charities
 Up to 30 per cent of revenue remains in the country of origin to cover administration costs.
 Charity projects may clash with the indigenous culture (for example conservation charities that support moving
people off the land to prevent deforestation).
 As with other kinds of aid, corruption amongst politicians and officials may prevent the aid from reaching the people
who need it.
Global Patterns of Aid
Figure 12.1 Aid given by MCDs Figure 12.2 Aid as a % of GDP in MDCs
Activity 12.1
1. Study Figures12.1 and 12.2. .
a. Which countries give more aid than the UN recommended limit of 0.7 per cent of GDP?
b. Give one reason to explain why Norway gives more aid as a percentage of GDP than the United States.
2. Give at least two reasons why the United States gives more aid than Italy.
Feedback
1. a. The Netherlands, Sweden, Denmark, Norway
b. The GDP of Norway is smaller than the United States and, therefore, the amount of aid given is a higher percentage of Norway‘s GDP.
2. The United States' GDP is larger than Italy's GDP, and, therefore, there is more money available to be given as aid; The United States plays
a larger role globally; aid given by the United States may take many different forms, and may not be only for humanitarian reasons.
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Table 12.1 DAC donors 2004 – 06
Top10 DAC donors USS million 2004 – 06
Country 2004 2005 2006
United States 16,250 25,582 21,162
Japan 5,917 10,406 7,313
United Kingdom 5,361 8,168 8,718
France 5,567 7,239 7,919
Germany 3,823 7,447 7,034
The Netherlands 2,670 3,683 4,282
Canada 1,991 2,833 2,531
Sweden 2,076 2,256 2,856
Norway 1,536 2,033 2,198
Spain 1,400 1,863 2,092
Other Countries 7,714 10,936 10,859
Source: OECD
Activity 12.1
Study Figures 12.1 and 12.2.
1. a. Which countries give more aid than the UN recommended limit of 0.7 per cent of GDP?
b. Give one reason to explain why Norway gives more aid as a percentage of GDP than the United States.
2. Give at least two reasons why the United States gives more aid than Italy.
Feedback
1. a. The Netherlands, Sweden, Denmark, Norway. -
2. b. The GDP of Norway is smaller than the United States and, therefore, the amount of aid given is a higher percentage of Norway’s GDP.
The United States GDP is larger than Italy’s GDP, and, therefore, there is more money available to be given as aid;
The United States plays a larger role globally; aid given by the United States may take many different forms, and may not be only for
humanitarian reasons.
Donors
The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) is the main coordinating body for the international
community’s efforts to make aid more effective. The OECD’s work on aid effectiveness is done by its Development
Assistance Committee (DAC). One of the OECD’s oldest committees, the DAC was founded in the early 1960s to guide,
promote and enhance cooperation with developing countries. Today, it comprises 23 members: Australia, Austria, Belgium,
Canada/ Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, New Zealand,
Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland/ United Kingdom, United States and the European Commission (EC), these
countries all have significant aid programmes. The World Bank, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the United
Nations Development Programme (UNDP) participate as observers.
Activity 12.2
1. Use the data in Table12.1 to create a bar chart showing the amount of aid given for the years 2004—06.
2. Describe the trends seen in the donation of funds by the top 10 countries.
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1.
Top10 DAC donors USS million 2004 – 06
Spain
Norway
Sweden
Canada
Country
The Netherlands
2006
Germany
France 2005
United Kingdom 2005
Japan
United States
‐ 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000 30,000

US$ million
Figure 12.3 Top DAC donors 2004 – 06

2. Over the three years, the general trend has been an increase in donations of development assistance by the top 10 countries.
The United States has given the highest amount of the 10 countries during this time period, and has also shown the highest
increase from 2004 to 2006. Four of the 10 countries – the United States, Japan, Germany and Canada – gave more money in
2005 than in the other two years. In the six remaining countries, 2006 was the year in which the most aid was given. The
amounts given in 2004 were the lowest for all 10 countries.
Table 12.2 Multilateral donors 2004-06

Top 10 Multilateral donors US$ million 2004 – 06
Agency 2004 2005 2006
EC (European Commission) 8,068 8,687 9,489
IDA (International Development Association) 7,283 6,611 5,996
AfDF (African Development Fund) 919 852 1,541
GFATM (Global Fund to fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria) 586 995 1,252
AsDF (ASEAN Social Development Fund) 694 859 1,020
UNICEF (UN Children's Fund) UNRWA ( 650 711 740
UN Relief and Works Agency) UNTA 449 508 600
(UN Transitional Authority) 434 580 371
WFP (World Food Programme) 253 555 473
UNDP (UN Development Programme) 374 399 437
Other agencies 1,574 1,082 1,929
Source: OECD
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Top 10 Multilateral donors US$ million 2004 – 06
UNDP (UN Development Programme)
WFP (World Food Programme)
(UN Transitional Authority)
UN Relief and Works Agency) UNTA
UNICEF (UN Children's Fund) UNRWA (
AsDF (ASEAN Social Development Fund)
GFATM (Global Fund to fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria)
AfDF (African Development Fund)
IDA (International Development Association)
EC (European Commission)
0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000 9,000 10,000
2006 2005 2004
Figure 12.4 Top 10 Multilateral donors US$ million 2004 – 06
Recipients
Figure 12.3 Recipients of Aid 2004-06
Top 10 Recipients of Aid 2004-06
Country 2004 2005 2006
Iraq 4,650 25,052 8,661
Nigeria 578 6,416 11,434
Afghanistan 2,171 2,752 3,000
Congo, Republic of Dem. 1,824 1,827 2,056
Ethiopia 1,806 1,910 1,947
Vietnam 1,840 1,907 1,846
Pakistan 1,424 1,626 2,147
Tanzania 1,751 1,481 1,825
Sudan 992 1,832 2,058
China 1,685 1,802 1,245
Other Countries 60,072 63,687 69,072
Source: OECD
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Activity 12.3
1. Use the data in Table12.3 to create a pie charts to show aid receipts for the years 2004—06.
2. Comment on the trends shown in over the three years.
Feedback
1.
2004
Nigeria
9% Afganistan
5% 25% Congo, Republic of Dem.
9%
3% Ethiopia
8%
11% Vietnam
10%
10% 10% Paskistan
Tanzania
Sudan
China
2005
Iraq
Nigeria
3%4%4%
3%
4% Afganistan
4%
4% Congo, Republic of Dem.
54%
6%
Ethiopia
14% Vietnam
Paskistan
Tanzania
Sudan
2006
Iraq
Nigeria
6%3%
5% 24% Afganistan
6%
5% Congo, Republic of Dem.
5%
6% Ethiopia
8% 32%
Vietnam
Paskistan
Tanzania
Sudan
.
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2. Iraq accounts for the largest share of the DAC receipts in two consecutive years – 2005 and 2006. Half of the top 10 countries receiving DAC
are African. Over the three years, there was an equal distribution of aid to countries other than Iraq and Nigeria. Together, Iraq and Nigeria
receive more than 50 per cent of the aid disbursed. It is apparent that there have been major changes in these two countries to require such
increases in the aid they receive. China's share of the aid fell dramatically from 9 per cent to 3 per cent overall, while Nigeria‘s share grew
tremendously from 3 per cent in 2004 to 32 per cent in 2006. Iraq was consistently high with respect to aid received over the three – year
period.
Aid may also be classified as short – term/emergency relief, or as long – term/ development aid. Short – term aid usually
follows a disaster such as a hurricane, flood or drought, and is provided as a short – term measure to keep people alive. The
aid sent to Grenada after hurricane Ivan in 2004 would be classified in this way. Aid was provided in the form of skilled
personnel such as doctors and nurses, as well as medicines, food and temporary housing materials. Aid was provided both
bilaterally as well as multilaterally. Examples of the aid provided are given in Table 12.4 below.
Donor Channel Description Amount US$
Australia United Nation Provision of temporary 3,692
Development Programme emergency housing, housing
(UNDP) repairs and training on
hurricane-resistant
construction techniques.
Canada Food and Agriculture Assistance to the 1,574,803
Organization (FAO) Agricultural Sector of
Grenada after hurricane Ivan
European OXFAM (GB) Emergency clean-up of solid 492,611
Commission waste in Grenada
Humanitarian
Aid Office
Ireland UNICEF Psychological support and 123,153
protection to hurricane-
affected children in
Grenada.
Trinidad and Bilateral 250 military contingent; 1,300,000
Tobago assistance in relief work,
food distribution, security
operations, restoration of
water and sewage systems,
provided airlift and sea
transport and transported
1,276 tonnes of food and
water and 638 tonnes of
construction materials,
generators.
USA Bilateral Two USAID/OFDA- 35,403
funded electrical engineers
conducted assessments of
worked with the Grenada
Electricity Co. Ltd.
Impact of Aid
The main objective of foreign aid is to promote economic growth in poor countries and lift people out of poverty. It has been
argued that development aid has not met this goal. Opponents of aid state that countries are not poor because of a gap
between savings and spending, which could be filled in by aid. Rather, it is the institutions of a free society which arc lacking,
including property rights, rule of law, free markets and efficient government (Erixon: 2005). Erixon suggests that aid has
largely been counterproductive by crowding out private sector investments, undermining democracy and enabling despots to
continue with oppressive policies, comminuting the cycle of poverty.
146
Advocates of aid, however, suggest that many problems of the world's extremely poor people can only be solved by aid from
MDCs, given the overall cost of addressing problems such as HIV/AIDS or diseases like malaria. LDCs simply do not have
the financial resources to address these issues, but MDCs do. Sachs (2005) suggests that there is one global society, and that
the rich countries have pledged to help the poor countries achieve the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) through
increased development assistance. The Millennium Development Goals are a set of eight targets agreed upon by the UN in
2002 (see below). Sachs also argues that the poor are often caught in a poverty trap, where they are unable to save enough to
get out of the vicious cycle and are doomed to remain in poverty. An injection of aid can provide the stimuli or resources
needed to break the cycle.
In addition to the quantity of aid, it is
important to examine the nature and the
reasons for giving it. Each aid allocation
has a set of implications related to the
alleviation of poverty in LDCs as well as to
the priorities and ulterior motives of
donors. Britain tied a higher proportion of
its aid in the 19805 and 19905, in order to
boost British goods and services.
US aid targeted two main categories of
countries: those of strategic importance
and those which were poor but ‘politically
correct’ (Potter, Binns, Elliot and Smith:
1999). According to USAID, United States
aid is used to:
 promote transformational development,
especially in the areas of governance,
institutional capacity and economic
restructuring
 strengthen fragile states
 provide humanitarian assistance
Figure 12.6 Poverty trap and aid impact
 support United States geostrategic interests, particularly in countries such as Iraq, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Jordan,
Egypt, and Israel and
 mitigate global and international ills, including HIV/AIDS.
Food aid is a major source of assistance from MDCs to LDCs. Most food aid is provided bilaterally, but much is directed
through the World Food Programme. Food aid can be a controversial source of assistance, since political and economic
motives may channel the flow of aid, rather than simply humanitarian responses.
Programme food aid is usually given as a grant or soft loan to fill the gap between supply and demand. This aid may reduce
the amount of foreign exchange a country spends on buying food. Project food aid seeks to satisfy nutritional needs, especially
in rural areas, and may be given as a grant. Emergency food aid is a response to disasters such as drought, floods and civil war.
While the importance of food aid as a disaster relief package is not in question, there are issues surrounding long-term
provision of food aid. It is suggested that food aid could:
 lower local food prices
 encourage governments to neglect the drive to food self-sufficiency
 create a dependency mentality
 change the eating habits of the recipients.
Aid impact
147
Table 12.5
When aid is effective When aid is ineffective
It provides humanitarian relief. Countries might postpone improving economic management.
Infrastructure may be expanded and
Domestic saving, direct foreign investment may be replaced as main sources of
improved. Technical expertise is
investment and technology development.
improved and personnel are trained. Aid
can support better economic and social Aid may promote dependency rather than self-reliance.
policies.
Food aid may depress agricultural prices, causing greater poverty among farmers
and a dependency on food imports.
Funds may be unpredictable, depending on political agenda of donor country,
leading to interruptions in development programmes.
Environmentally unsound projects may be funded, or inappropriate technologies
transferred. Emergency aid does not solve longstanding problems of a country.
If too much aid is tied to purchase of goods and services from donor. This
might not be the most economical way of using the funds.
Aid does not reach all who need it.
Source: Baker, S/ et al. in Nagle, G. Development and Underdevelopment
Aid that works
Case study 1
When Naomi Kwampa was six years old, she started primary school near Accra, the capital of Ghana. Barely a term later, was
she forced to drop out because her mother could not afford essential school accessories. Four years later – thanks to help with
school costs – she has been able to return to school. She plans to become a nurse.
Had she been unable to return to school it would have been a tragedy, not just for Naomi but for her community and her own
children. Because bringing girls into the classroom has a phenomenal effect, not just on them, but their families.
Statistically, Naomi will earn more and have more economic independence. She will be less likely to marry young, have fewer
babies and her children are likely to be more spaced apart (helping reduce the chance of complications that lead to half a
million maternal deaths every year in the developing world). And the longer Naomi stays in school, the better off her children
will be. They are more likely to be immunized, better fed and educated.
Case study 2
Nakakande Teopista was struggling to support her family in central rural Uganda when she heard about a scheme that would
change her and her family’s lives dramatically. She lived miles from the nearest payphone, so making phone calls was normally
out of the question. She applied for a tiny loan – enough to buy a mobile phone and the equipment enabling her to offer
mobile services to her neighbors. In four months she had repaid the loan and, with her son, began to offer mobile services in
neighboring villages and even opened a stationery shop at the nearest trading centre.
Ms. Teopista can now afford to send her children to school and help secure the future welfare of the family. The process of
offering small loans to poor people who want to generate income is known as microfinance. Traditionally poor people have
been excluded from normal financial services and forced to rely on moneylenders who charge extortionate rates that drive
borrowers further into poverty.
But providing small loans (less than $200 to poor people (particularly women)) is actually an enormously efficient use of
money. Not only are loans repaid in full within months but the repayments are recycled as more loans to other women. The
small businesses, in everything from weaving and baking to brick-making and bicycle repair, help families escape poverty – in
Bangladesh, at a rate of 10,000 women every month. As a result families eat better, are healthier and better educated too. And
crucially, women who earn their own money usually have more self-esteem, more say and more status in their homes and
neighborhoods.
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Activity 12.4
1. Bilateral aid flows from
a. one government to another
b. a non-governmental organization (NGO) to a receiving country
c. several countries to
d. one country done country to several countries
2. Multilateral aid is channeled through

I The World Bank
lI Save the Children
lll Doctors without Borders
lV The IMF
a. ll only
b. l and IV only
c. ll and lll only
d. lll and IV only
3. Which of these is an example of short-term aid?

a. Well-building in Bolivia
b. Providing primary education for a village
c. Providing flood victims with food
d. Building a major new road network
4. What are the arguments against giving aid?
Feedback
1. a
2. b
3. c
4. When aid is given. LDCs may become even more dependent on the donor countries and be unable to address the root causes of their
problems. For example, when countries receive food aid every year, the issues of food production are not addressed, either through lack of
will Or lack of effective planning. Inappropriate food aid can lead to a taste for food that the country cannot grow themselves. It also tends to
put local farmers out of business. Profits from large prestige projects can go to MDCs especially if the aid is tied, and the recipient countries
must purchase goods and services from the donor country.
Aid does not always reach the people who need it most; corruption may divert funds away from those who need it. In addition aid is not
always given to those in greatest need, but may be used as a bargaining tool to get countries to follow a particular agenda, for example, the
US promising aid to North Korea if they agree to discuss nuclear disarmament.
Aid can be used as a means of exerting political pressure on the receiving country and may be unpredictable in its dissemination. Aid may
be turned on or off in response to the strategic needs of the donor country, making development programmes difficult to implement.
Debt Relief
Another measure which proposed to reduce disparities in development among nations is debt relief. Many developing
countries often find themselves deep in debt after securing loans from another country or countries or an international agency
such as the World Bank, and despite long repayment schedules, are under pressure to make even basic interest payments.
Proponents for the eradication of Third World debt encourage richer lending countries to forgive the debt of poorer countries
so that foreign exchange currently sent overseas to pay interest on loans can be used within the country for development
projects.
Most of the existing debt in LDCs was accumulated in the 19705 and 19805. This debt came about because LDCs were forced
to borrow money to finance the huge increase in the price of oil imports. International banks had money to lend, and
indebtedness did not appear very burdensome at the time because interest rates were low. Once large volumes of debt were
acquired, changes in US economic policy sent interest rates soaring and the prices of exported raw materials fell sharply. The
debt burden rapidly became intolerable.
In general, Latin America owes most of its debt to international banks. While Africa owes the most to other governments and
international organizations. Debt is a major source of financial and political tension in the world.
149
In 1996, the HIPC (Highly Indebted Poor Countries) initiative was launched by the IMF and World Bank to ensure that no
poor country faces a debt burden it cannot manage. In 2005, to help accelerate progress toward the United Nations
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), the HIPC Initiative was supplemented by the Multilateral Debt Relief Initiative
(MDRI) which allows for 100 per cent relief on eligible debts by three multilateral institutions – the IMF, the World Bank, and
the African Development Fund (ADF) – for countries completing the HIPC Initiative process. In 2007, the Inter-American
Development Bank (IDB) also decided to provide additional debt relief to the five HIPCs in the Western hemisphere
(Nicaragua, Honduras, Bolivia, Guyana, and Haiti).
Countries must meet certain criteria, commit to poverty reduction through policy changes and demonstrate a good track
record over time, The Fund and Bank provide interim debt relief in the initial stages, and when a country meets its
commitments, full debt relief is provided. To be considered for HIPC Initiative assistance, a country must:
1. be eligible to borrow from the World Bank’s International Development Agency, which provides interest-free loans and
grants to the world’s poorest Countries, and from the IMF’s Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility, which provides
loans to low-income countries at subsidized rates
2. face an unsustainable debt burden that cannot be addressed through traditional debt relief
3. have established a track record of reform and sound policies through IMF and World Bank supported programmes
4. have developed a Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) through a broad-based participatory process in the country.
Debt relief is part of a much larger effort, which also includes aid flows, to address the development needs of low-income
countries. For debt reduction to have a noticeable impact on poverty, the additional money needs to be spent on programmes
that benefit the poor.
Case study 3
Haiti was granted US$1.2 billion of debt relief. Haiti carried out a number of reforms despite a challenging environment
marked by major natural disasters, a food and fuel crisis, difficult political conditions, and the impact of the global economic
downturn. These reforms were aimed at establishing a more stable macroeconomic environment and at implementing its
national poverty reduction strategy Haiti strengthened public expenditure management, tax and customs administration and
improved debt management and reporting.
In education, Haiti established financing to allow over 50,000 children to attend school, allocated over 20 per cent of recurrent
spending to education, and made progress toward implementing the teacher training Programme In health, Haiti approved an
HIV/AIDS prevention and treatment plan and improved immunization rates for measles and DPT3 (Diptheria, pertussis,
tetanus).
(Source: www.imf.oryextemal/np/sedpr/ZOO9/pr09243.htm)
Impact of Debt on Poor Countries
 Jobs are lost as the World Bank and IMF routinely require countries in debt to limit pay for government employees
and to privatize state enterprises, which results in mass layoffs.
 Health care is reduced as there is underinvestment in health.
 Nearly 70 per cent of heavily indebted countries spent more on debt interest payments than on public health in 2002.
The ability of these countries to respond to the AIDS epidemic, to fight diseases like tuberculosis and malaria, and to
provide routine preventive care is hampered. There may also be a severe ‘brain drain’ of frustrated health
professionals (for example nurses) which serves to further weaken health systems.
 Global warming and climate change are already damaging agriculture and contributing to the spread of disease.
Extreme debt burdens pressure governments to exploit resources for export and heavily indebted countries are major
deforesters.
 Heavy debts make it more difficult for governments to prevent and recover from war and conflict. They also make it
harder to afford a social safety net, leaving the poorest more vulnerable to criminals, from traffickers to terrorists.
 Millions of people in heavily indebted countries lack the rights to access adequate housing and income that would
allow them to stay in their home country, creating refugees and migration flows from LDCs to MDCs.
150
Just as debt is not the root of all development problems in LDCs, neither is debt cancellation a cure. There will always be
some corrupt leaders who prefer to use the proceeds to buy weapons or build palaces rather than improving their people’s
lives. But even small amounts of debt relief can lead to remarkable results. For example:
 more than doubling school enrolment in Uganda
 eliminating fees to allow l.6 million Tanzanian children to return to school
 a 50 per cent increase in education and health spending in 10 African countries
 programmes that have successfully stabilized HIV rates in Burkina Faso
 plans to add more than 4,500 teachers and 800 medical personnel in Zambia.
Further debt cancellation would give impoverished country governments a better chance of reducing inequality and protecting
the environment in their countries.
(Source: www.globalpolicy.org/ixnages/pdfs/O3debtboom.pdf)
Appropriate Technology
Appropriate technology may be defined as ’an approach to community development consisting of a body of knowledge,
techniques, and an underlying philosophy’ (Akabue: 2000). It is not static because as appropriate technology improves the
productive capabilities of a community, the community influences and improves the level of technology as well. The
appropriateness of technology is not limited only to job creation, using local resources and utilizing renewable energy
resources, but it is also about being affordable, easy to maintain, compatible with existing infrastructure, efficient in the use of
scarce natural resources, environmentally benign and partial to small scale (Akabue: 2000).
Appropriate technology (formerly known as intermediate technology) is common in LDCs, where resource or skills restrict the
use of the same technologies as in MDCs. It makes use of available local skills, resources and tools, rather than trying to
transplant techniques, methods and tools developed for use elsewhere. Appropriate technology is a practical approach in
LDCs to the use of techniques and machinery developed in MDCs. Appropriate technology in LDCs tends to be low cost,
makes use of local resources, and is often labour intensive rather than capital intensive since LDCs have large populations and
limited capital.
Technology works best and is adopted by most people when it can be shown to improve their lives or standard of living in
some way. The use of technology simply for the sake of using technology is not an improvement. An example is the use of
handheld blowers to round up leaves instead of a simple rake or broom. The blowers are loud, need fuel and often take longer
than simply raking or sweeping leaves into a big pile for collection.
There are many examples of inappropriate technology. After the 2004 tsunami in South East Asia, the EU proposed to send
European decommissioned fishing boats to affected areas. However, the European boats have a much larger capacity than
local boats and could lead to overfishing. Also, the size of the boats would cause a change in the way in which fishermen
operate - from small single boats to a large crew; the age of the boats would require them to be maintained more frequently
which may be difficult for the fishermen, and spare pans may not be readily available. There are other examples as pointed out
by Nagle {1998):
 lorries sent to areas whether there are no roads, as in Ethiopia
 tractors given to areas where there are no mechanics or space parts, in parts of Zimbabwe
 large-scale irrigation schemes in desert areas, where they may cause Stalinization.
How appropriate is the Technology
1. Is it acceptable to the local people?
2. Do them (or will they) use it effectively?
3. Will it help to improve the well-being of those in greatest need?
4. Is it low cost and efficient?
5. Does it make full use of local resources, traditions and abilities?
6. Does it take into consideration any local factors such as geography, climate and traditions that may affect its usefulness?
7. Does it keep a natural balance with the environment?
8. Is it something that local people can easily understand, afford and repair by themselves?
9. Tb what extents were local people involved or consulted in its planning, design, selection or adaptation?
151
10. Does it provide more local employment? Or does it take jobs away?
11. Does it build people’s confidence to find their own answers and make their own decisions?
12. Will it help close the gap between the rich and the poor? Or widen it?
13. Does it help the weak to gain greater control and become more self- reliant?
(Source: www.healthwrights.org)
Examples of appropriate technology in use include the solar dryer in Kenya, rainwater harvesting in Uganda, the use of bicycle
trailers in Zambia. In the Caribbean, the use of solar heaters to heat water for domestic use is widespread, making use of a
widely available resource the sun’s energy.
Activity 12.5
What may be some of the arguments against the use of appropriate technology in LDCs? Assess the value of these arguments
Feedback
Appropriate technology is inefficient: It may not be efficient from an engineering standpoint, but it is unrealistic to describe any technology that
enhances the capacity to satisfy community goals and aspirations as inefficient.
Appropriate technology is not congenial to growth and improving the standard of living: The technology is not static and does change to meet
changing needs and requirements of the country in which it is used. As persons use the technology, their standard of living may well improve to
the point where they no longer need it but may now be able to invest in advanced technologies.
Appropriate technology is an inferior technology. It is a technology tailored to serve the particular needs of a given region or community. This
implies that some effort is made to secure the best alternative there is for the set of circumstances peculiar to that region or community.
Appropriate technology is part of a scheme by Western industrialized countries to maintain their position of socio-economic and technological
dominance over LDCs: Appropriate technology is developed within the LDC for the use of local people, and is not something imposed by external
forces.
Key Points
 Aid can be financial, technical or humanitarian in nature.
 Aid flows from MDCs w LDCs.
 Millions of dollars are given in aid per year but this is on.ly a small percentage of MDCs’ GDP.
 LDCs heavily in debt spend most of their income on debt servicing.
 Forgiveness of debt has been undertaken by multilateral agencies such as the World Bank.
 Appropriate technology uses local resources and skills.
 Appropriate technology can take technology developed in the MDCs and make it practical in LDCs.
 Appropriate technology is mainly low cost, affordable and labour intensive in LDCs.
Conclusion
The measures to combat development disparities must be tailored to reflect the particular circumstances in each country. Aid
can and does help some countries, but in others which lack basic social services and where government is very dominant, the
aid may not help the people to whom it is directed.
Aid may be monetary or technical in nature and can be disbursed by one country or by an agency which deals with
development issues. Some LDCs are very dependent on financial aid in order to meet their debt commitments, as they are
caught up in a debt crisis with origins in the 197OS and 19805. The forgiving of high levels of debt has been proposed and
carried out in some situations. However, the LDCs still have to make commitments to the World Bank or IMF in exchange
for this in order to try to improve the standard of living in these countries.
The use of appropriate technology can enhance development progress in a country, as there would be the creation of jobs for
the population as well as the use of local resources. Once people are employed, they may have the chance to improve their
standard of living as well as improve the levels of technology which they use.
152
Suggested Further Reading
Akabue, A. ‘Appropriate Technology for Socioeconomic Development in Third World
countries’. Joumal of Technological Studies, 2000.
Erixon, F. ‘Aid and Development: Will it work this time?’ International Policy Network.
Nagle, G. Development and under development.
Nelson Thornes: UK, 1998.
Potter, R., Binns, T., Elliott, J. and Smith, D. Geographies of Development. Prentice Hall: London, 1999.
Sachs, J. The End of Poverty – Economic Possibilities for our time & Penguin
Press: New York, 2006,
www.oecd.org
www.eurodad.org
http://hdrstats.undp.org
wwwbpec.org
End Test
1. Describe two forms of aid.
2. Write an essay discussing the effectiveness of aid to developing countries.
End Test Feedback
1. Bilateral aid from one country to another, for example, Britain to Nigeria or India. Often the terms are dictated by the donor and operate to
the advantage of the donor. Usually there are strong economic and political ties between the donor and recipient.
Multilateral aid several countries give assistance to a number of countries. The amount involved may be small but the rate of interest is high.
Charitable aid Aid extended by charities such as Oxfam, and the aid is more likely to be provided where the need is justified and there are no
political ties. The charities come under the umbrella of NGOs.
2. Essay should address both when the aid is effective and ineffective. Aid offered by charitable organizations is often effective. They respond
to humanitarian situations, although the form of the relief may be inappropriate. Aid offered to build capacity is effective as it leads to the
growth of a cadre of specialists that could help in development of the country.
Aid can also be directed to the development of infrastructure – roads, bridges, rail – that opens up the country and that supports other
development. It provides capital for programmes that otherwise would not attract investment. However, aid can have a depressing effect on
indigenous development leading to a reduction in prices of locally produced goods and, therefore, increasing poverty among rural
populations and small entrepreneurs.
Aid can promote dependency, and reduce initiative and self—reliance, preventing the emergence of indigenous entrepreneurs and solutions.
Often aid does not reach those that need it. Much of the aid remains in donor countries as it goes towards salaries for consultants,
equipment manufactured in donor countries. Some of the technologies may be inappropriate. Often aid is suspended when the recipient
countries transgress and so the flow is unpredictable.
153

UNIT 2 Geography Self-Study and Distance Learning

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UNIT 2 Geography Self-Study and Distance Learning

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GEOGRAPHY

2. WEATHER SYSTEMS, CLIMATIC CHANGE, MICROCLIMATE ......... 21

3. VEGETATION TYPES ...................................................................... 32

4. SOIL .............................................................................................. 43

5. ECONOMIC STRUCTURE ............................................................... 52

6. AGRICULTURE .............................................................................. 59

7. INUSTRY ........................................................................................ 81

8. TOURISM ....................................................................................... 93

9. DEVELOPMENT AND UNDERDEVELOPMENT .............................. 102

10. GLOBAL DISPARITY .................................................................. 112

11. REGIONAL AND LOCAL DISPARITIES IN DEVELOPMENT ......... 127

12. MEASURES TO OVERCOME DISPARITIES ................................. 138

 Explain the factors affecting the receipt of solar radiation.

Figure 1.10 Atmospheric circulation in the northern hemisphere Feedback

Activity 1.3 Feedback

b. Friction. The drag exerted by the earth’s surface is known as friction.

Figure 2.1 Absolute Humidity

Air Masses and Weather Systems.

3. The weather experienced at Station C is

4. Describe three ways in which 1. d

Figure 3.2 Structure of the tropical rainforest

The problem – Brazil

Density: the number of plants rooted in each quadrat:

Cover: the percentage of the quadrat covered by the species:

Figure 4.3 Soil Structure

Soils under Tropical Rainforests and Temperate Grasslands

These soils (Figure 4.5) develop under grasslands

Figure 5.2 Employment sectors

Figure 5.3 Higher order economic activity

Reasons for Changes in Relative Importance of Sectors

End Test Feedback

 Appreciate the pattern of agricultural activities

Figure 6.1a Extensive agriculture Figure 6.1b Extensive agriculture

Figure 6.1a Intensive agriculture Figure 6.1b Intensive agriculture

Activity 6.2 Feedback

4. Which of the following best describes subsistence farming?

Modern Farming in the European Union

Traditional Agriculture in the Caribbean

Source: Ministry of Agriculture, Trinidad and Tobago

Von Thunen's model of rural land use

1. Based on the data presented in the graph above,

Potential impact of climate change on farming systems in LDCs

Source: Rosenzweig and Hillel:www.gcrio.org/CONSEQUENCES/summer95/agriculture.html

Steps in drawing a flow line map:

Using the instructions given, complete the following assignment.

Use of topographical maps to examine agricultural activity

Examine the effects of Introduction

Industrial Change in LDCs

Approaches to and Problems of industrial Development in the Caribbean

The Informal Sector

Environmental Impact of Industry in MDCs and LDCs

5. All of the following are characteristics of ecotourism EXCEPT it is a

Figure 8.2 Butler's Tourism Lifecycle Model

Tourism in a Caribbean Territory

Figure 9.2 Disparities in development

Figure 9.5 Mall Figure 9.6 Apartment complex

Economic and non – economic indicators of development

Table 9.6 Access to safe drinking water in Honduras (% households 7970—2002)

End Test Feedback

4. The greatest improvement was in the rural area.

Figure 10.1 World Poverty Distribution

Life expectancy – distribution

Table 10.4 Gender Empowerment Measures for Selected Countries