LEVEL MEASUREMENT

Level sensors are not only used in

Industrial and Chemical Applications
Common household items use them as
well
These sensors range from simple
mechanical devices to electronic or
radiating tools with +0.1%.

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TYPES OF LEVEL SENSORS

1) Hydrostatic Head
2) Float
3) Load Cells
4) Magnetic Level Gauge
5) Capacitance
6) Conductivity
7) Ultrasonic
8) Radar
9) Guided Wave Radar
10) Dip Stick

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LEVELS SENSORS ON CAR

Cars contain two of the main

kinds of level sensors:
1)Float sensor(based on
buoyant and displacement
types)
2)Visual sensor
Eg. The float sensor is found in
the gas tank and visual sensors
under the hood of the car.
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 GAS TANK FLOAT SENSOR

• Initially, the float is at top of tank

• The attached wiper is closer to negative side of terminal
– Less resistance
– More current
– Hotter Heating coil
– Pulls Bimetallic strip so dashboard gauge displays full
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 As fuel leaves tank, float lowers
Wiper moves further down resistor
More resistence
Less current
Coil cools
Strip pulls with contracting metal
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Finally, after float hits bottom of tank, wiper is
pulled to far right:
Highest resistance
Lowest current
Coolest heating coil
Strip pulled gauge to empty

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 Gas Tank Float Sensor
• Pros:
– Relatively simple mechanical design
– Good for estimating level of fuel
– Economical

• Cons:
– Inaccurate when:
• Tank is completely full
• Tank is near empty
– Doesn’t measure precise tank volume
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 Level Gauges Under the Hood
• Under the hood of a car, there are ways to
check the level of various other fluids
– Oil
– Transmission
– Coolant / Antifreeze
– Windshield washer fluid
• These are checked using visual level
gauges
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 Dipsticks

Dipstick is inserted into • Similary to the fuel

engine tank float meter:
Then removed with oil – Good for estimating
residue on tip
Tip is marked with “full” fluid level
and “add oil” markings – Not a precise
Checking transmission measurement of
fluid is similar volume 9
Container Markings

Small tanks under the hood

containing windshield
washer fluid and coolant
have markings on the
sides.

• Only good for level estimation

• Can’t measure precise fluid
volume
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 LEVEL MEASUREMENT
• With the wide variety of approaches to level
measurement In recent years, technologies that
capitalized on microprocessor developments.
• For example, the tried-and-true technique of measuring
the head BASED ON “smart” differential pressure (DP)
transmitters.
• Today’s local level-measuring instruments can include
diagnostics as well as configuration and process
data that can be communicated over a network to
remote monitoring and control instrumentation. Some
model even provides local PID control.

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 LEVEL MEASUREMENT
• Some of the most commonly used liquid-level
measurement methods are:
– FLOAT type
– RF capacitance
– Conductance (conductivity)
– Hydrostatic head/tank gauging
– Radar
– Ultrasonic etc

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Float type Level transmitter

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 RF Capacitance
• RF (radio frequency) technology uses the
electrical characteristics of a capacitor, in
several different configurations, for level
measurement.
• Commonly referred to as RF capacitance or
simply RF, the method is suited for detecting the
level of liquids, slurries, granulars, or interfaces
contained in a vessel.
• Designs are available for measuring process
level at a specific point, at multiple points, or
continuously over the entire vessel height. Radio
frequencies for all types range from 30 kHz to 1
MHz.
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 Capacitance Measurement Theory
• All RF level systems make use of
enhancements of the same
capacitance-measuring technique.
• An electrical capacitance exists
between two conductors separated by a
distance, d. The first conductor can be
the vessel wall (plate 1), and the
second can be a measurement probe
or electrode (plate 2). The two
conductors have an effective area, A,
normal to each other.
• Between the conductors is an insulating
medium—the non conducting material
involved in the level measurement.

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Capacitance Measurement Theory
• The amount of capacitance here is determined
not only by the spacing and area of the
conductors, but also by the electrical
characteristic (relative dielectric constant, K) of
the insulating material.
• The value of K affects the charge storage
capacity of the system: The higher the K, the
more charge it can build up.
• Dry air has a K of 1.0. Liquids and solids have
considerably higher values.

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 Capacitance Measurement Theory
• The capacitance for the basic capacitor arrangement
shown in Figure 1 can be computed from the equation:
C = E (K A/d)
where:
C = capacitance in picofarads (pF)
E = a constant known as the absolute permittivity of free
space
K = relative dielectric constant of the insulating material
A = effective area of the conductors
d = distance between the conductors

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Capacitance Measurement Theory
• To apply this formula to a level-measuring
system, assume that the process material is
insulating, which, of course, is not always true.
• A bare, conductive, sensing electrode (probe) is
inserted down into a tank to act as one
conductor of the capacitor.
• The metal wall of the tank acts as the other.
• If the tank is nonmetallic, a conductive ground
reference must be inserted into the tank to act
as the other capacitor conductor.

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 Capacitance Level Measurement
Theory
• With the tank empty, the insulating medium
between the two conductors is air. With the tank
full, the insulating material is the process liquid
or solid.
• As the level rises in the tank to start covering the
probe, some of the insulating effect from air
changes into that from the process material,
producing a change in capacitance between the
sensing probe and ground.
• This capacitance is measured to provide a
direct, linear measurement of tank level.
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Capacitance Measurement Theory

• In the RF capacitance method of liquid level

measurement, the electrode sensor connects
directly to an RF transmitter outside the tank.
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Capacitance Measurement Theory
• The electrode sensor, or probe, connects
directly to an RF level transmitter, which is
mounted outside the tank. In one design, with
the probe mounted vertically, the system can be
used for both continuous level measurement and
simultaneous multipoint level control.
• Alternatively, for point level measurement, one
or more probes can be installed horizontally
through the side of the tank; Figure shows this
type being used as a high-level alarm.

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Capacitance Measurement Theory
TABLE 1

Dielectric Constants of Sample

Substances(K)

Value
Substance
18.3
Isopropyl alcohol
1.8
Kerosene
8.0
Kynar
2.1
Mineral oil
80
Pure water
4.0
Sand
3.0
Sugar
2.0
Teflon

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Capacitance Measurement Theory

This view of a typical RF capacitance

probe shows the electronic chassis
enlarged to twice the size of its housing.

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Radio Frequency Impedance or RF
Admittance.
• When another electrical characteristic, impedance,
enters the picture, the result is further refinements in RF
level measurement.
• Offering improved reliability and a wider range of uses,
these variations of the basic RF system are called RF
admittance or RF impedance. In RF or AC circuits, impe
dance, Z, is defined as the total opposition to current
flow:
• Z = R + 1/ j 2 π f C
where:
R = resistance in ohms
f = measurement frequency (radio frequency for RF measurement)
C = capacitance
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 RF Impedance or RF Admittance.
• An RF impedance level-sensing instrument measures
this total impedance rather than just the capacitance.
Some level-measuring systems are referred to as RF
admittance types.
• In some cases, the process material tends to build up a
coating on the level-sensing probe.
• In such cases, which are not uncommon in level
applications, a significant measurement error can occur
because the instrument measures extra capacitance and
resistance from the coating buildup due to corrosion. As
a result, the sensor reports a higher, and incorrect, level
instead of the actual tank level.

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 RF Impedance or RF Admittance.
• Note that the equation for impedance includes
resistance, R. The RF impedance method can be
provided with specific circuitry capable of measuring the
resistance and capacitance components from the
coating and the capacitive component due to the actual
process material level.
• The circuitry is designed to solve a mathematical
relationship electronically, thereby producing a 4–20 mA
current output that is proportional only to the actual level
of the process material. It is virtually unaffected by any
buildup of coating on the sensing probe, enabling an RF
system to continue functioning reliably and accurately.

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Capacitance Level Detection (RF Level Probes)

RF Capacitance level sensors are similar in operation to conductivity

sensors and are typically used when non-conductive liquids are
measured.

The only variable is the dielectric of the tank material that varies in proportion to
the level.
Conductive liquids like mineral water will short out the probe to the tank wall.
Good for solids 27
 Using a d/P Cell Transmitter
The differential pressure cell is one of the most common
methods of measuring level.

4 – 20 mA

24 VDC mA To PLC
or
Controller

Lo side open to
atmosphere

Open Tank Measurement

• Lo side of the d/P cell is left open to atmosphere.
• Hi side measures the hydrostatic head pressure which is proportional to the
height of the liquid and its density.
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 Conductance type level
sensors
Based on 02 probes, When the level reaches the upper probe, a
switch closes to start the discharge pump; when the level
reaches the lower probe, the switch opens to stop the pump

• In the conductive type of

level measurement, two
dual-tip probes detect the
maximum and minimum
levels in a tank.
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Conductivity Level Measurement

Point Level Measurement Continuous Level Measurement

DC Excitation voltages may create problems with some liquids

(polarization) AC excitation voltages can be used but some frequencies
are not suitable for all liquids.

Advantages and disadvantages

Low Cost
Conductive, non-coating liquids only
Insulating coatings can cause problems 30
 General Theory for Head
Measurement
The Pressure exerted by the Height of the
liquid is:
P = H x Density*

If the Density of the liquid is known then

H = Pressure
Density* Height
Liquid Density
(D)
(H)
Pressure
PSI

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 Example
A dip stick measurement of the level of these 2 tanks indicates 30 feet of
liquid in both tanks. Calculate the pressure that each gauge will read if
tank 1 contains water (S.G. = 1) and tank 2 contains oil (S.G. = 0.85)

Water Oil
Density (D) Density (D)
Height
Height
(H)
(H)

Tank 2
Tank 1 PSI
PSI

P = ? psi P = ? psi

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 Example
A dip stick measurement of the level of these 2 tanks indicates 30 feet of
liquid in both tanks. Calculate the pressure that each gauge will read if
tank 1 contains water (S.G. = 1) and tank 2 contains oil (S.G. = 0.85)

Water Oil
Density (D) Density (D)
Height
Height
(H)
(H)

Tank 2
Tank 1 PSI
PSI

P = H x Density x SG
= 30 ft x 0.0361 lbs/in3 x 1
= (30 x 12) x 0.0361
= 13 psi
P = H x Density x SG
= 30 ft x 0.0361 lbs/in3 x 0.85
= (30 x 12) x 0.0361 x 0.85
= 11 psi
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Closed Tank Applications
P (atmospheric)

Open tanks are vented to atmosphere so

the pressure at the bottom of the tank
is only due to the head pressure of the
liquid.

P Head = h x D

Closed tanks are not vented to

atmosphere so the pressure at the
P vapour bottom of the tank is due to the head
pressure of the liquid + the vapour
pressure above the surface.

P Head = (h x D) + P vapour
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 Based on temp. transmitter
(TT) and level transmitter
(LT) to detect accumulation
of water at the bottom of a
tank.

Mass (weight) of the tank’s contents can be calculated from the

hydrostatic head (measured by PT) multiplied by the tank area
temperature-density relationship used to calculate the volume and
level(tank has no pressure). Data fed into a computer .
Used for suirries,powder and highly viscous material like
toothpaste.
Not suitable for material which solidify.
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 Radar / Microwave (current
technolgy for continuous level )
• Radar methods /microwave types. Based on
electromagnetic waves, typically in the microwave X-
band (10 GHz) range.
• The principle based on the beaming microwaves
downward from a sensor located on top of the vessel.
The sensor receives back a portion of the energy that is
reflected off the surface of the measured medium. Travel
time for the signal (called the time of flight) is used to
determine level.
• For continuous level measurement, there are two main
types of noninvasive systems, as well as one invasive
type that uses a cable or rod as a wave guide and
extends down into the tank’s contents to near its bottom.

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Radar Level Sensors (Microwave)

Similar to ultrasonic but at a

much higher frequency (6.3
GHz)
Various designs
– Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave
– Pulsed Wave
– Guided Wave

These sensors have better performance in applications where vapour, dust

or uneven surfaces exist.

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 Radar / Microwave
• The sensor outputs a frequency-modulated (FM)
signal that varies from 0 to ~200 Hz as the
distance ranges from 0 to 200 ft (60 m).
• An advantage of this technique is that the level-
measurement signals are FM rather than AM,
affording the same advantages that radio waves
offer.
• Most tank noise is in the AM range and does not
affect the FM signals.

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 Radar / Microwave
• ultrasonic pulse Type. The radar pulse is aimed at the
liquid’s surface and the transit time of the pulse’s re turn
is used to calculate level. Because pulse radar is lower
power than FMCW, its performance can be affected by
obstructions in the tank as well as foam and low-
dielectric materials (K < 2).
• Antennas for the noninvasive methods come in two
designs: parabolic dish and cone.
• The parabolic dish antenna tends to direct the signals
over a wider area while the cone tends to confine the
signals in a narrower downward path. The choice of one
or the other, and its diameter, depends on application
factors such as tank obstructions that may serve as
reflectors, the presence of foam, and turbulence of the
measured fluid.
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Radar (microwave) level measurement can use either of two
types of antenna construction at the top of vessel. 40
 Radar / Microwave
• Guided-wave radar (GWR) is an invasive method that
uses a rod or cable to guide the micro wave as it passes
down from the sensor into the material being measured
and all the way to the bottom of the vessel. The basis for
GWR is time-domain reflectometry (TDR), which has
been used for years to locate breaks in long lengths of
cable that are underground or in building walls

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Guided wave Radar Sensor

A generated pulse of
electromagnetic
energy travels
down the probe.
Upon reaching the
liquid surface the
pulse is reflected.

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 Ultrasonic and Sonic type
level sensors
Principle:
• Based on the sending a sound
wave from a peizo electric transducer to
the contents of the vessel. The device
measures the length of time it takes for
the reflected sound wave to return to the
transducer eg
• A top-of-tank mounted transducer directs
waves downward in bursts onto the
surface of the material whose level is to
be measured. Echoes of these waves
return to the transducer, which performs
calculations to convert the distance of
wave travel into a measure of level in the
tank.

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UltraSonic Level Measurement

• Non-Contact direct level

sensor
• Level is a function of
the time it takes an
ultrasonic pulse to hit
the surface and return
Limitations include:
• Surface foam absorbs signal, agitation create reflections
• High Pressure & High Temperatures affect the signal speed
• Vapour and condensate create false echo’s
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Radar Level Sensors (Microwave)

Similar to ultrasonic but at a

much higher frequency (6.3
GHz)
Various designs
– Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave
– Pulsed Wave
– Guided Wave

These sensors have better performance in applications where vapour, dust

or uneven surfaces exist.

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Guided wave Radar Sensor

A generated pulse of
electromagnetic
energy travels
down the probe.
Upon reaching the
liquid surface the
pulse is reflected.

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 Radar / Microwave Level
System(higher frequency)
• A piezoelectric crystal inside the transducer converts
electrical pulses into sound energy that travels in the
form of a wave at the established frequency and at a
constant speed in a given medium. The medium is
normally air ,nitrogen etc.
• The sound waves are emitted in bursts and received
back at the transducer as echoes. The instrument
measures the time for the bursts to travel down to the
reflecting surface and return. This time will be
proportional to the distance from the transducer to the
surface and can be used to determine the level of fluid in
the tank.

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 Radar / Microwave
• The speed of sound through the medium (usually air)
varies with the medium’s temperature. The transducer
may contain a temperature sensor to compensate for
changes in operating temperature that would alter the
speed of sound and hence the distance calculation that
determines an accurate level measurement.
• The presence of heavy foam on the surface of the
material can act as a sound absorbent.
• Extreme turbulence of the liquid can cause
fluctuating readings. Used to measure LPG & other
hazordous hydrocarbons levels on board sea going
tankers.

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Load Cells
Tank level is determined by
the weight of the quantity
of material
Load Cells (strain gauge
transducers) placed at the
bottom of the tank
measure the weight and
then convert it to an
electrical signal.

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 Summary

• Level is measured by locating the

boundary between two media, called the
interface
• Level can be measured directly or
indirectly
• Noninvasive devices are preferred when
the material is corrosive, hazardous,
sterile, or at a high temperature or
pressure
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 Batch application using point level measurement

• Detect if the level is

at a predetermined
point
• Generally used to
detect either a low-
level condition or
high-level condition
• The output of a
point level sensor is
on-off, or 1 or 0
state digital signal

A batch process does NOT use a continuous level measurement device. 51

Summary

1) Hydrostatic Head
2) Float
3) Load Cells
4) Magnetic Level
Gauge
5) Capacitance
6) Conductivity
7) Ultrasonic
8) Radar
9) Guided Wave
Radar
10)Dip Stick

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