Air

Pollution
Air & Its Pollution
A person needs per
day about
– 1.4 kg of water
– 0.7 kg of food
– 14 kg of air
Air & Its Pollution
A person needs per
day about
– 1.4 kg of water
– 0.7 kg of food
– 14 kg of air
 Air Pollution
Air pollution may be defined as the presence
in the air (outdoor atmosphere) of one or
more contaminants or combinations
thereof in such quantities and of such
durations as may be or tend to be
injurious to human, animal or plant life,
or property, or which unreasonably
interferes with the comfortable
enjoyment of life or property or
conduct of business.
 Air Pollutants
A pollutant can be solid (large or sub-molecular),
liquid or gas .
It may originate from a natural or anthropogenic
source or both.
It is estimated that anthropogenic sources have
changed the composition of global air by less
than 0.01%.
However, it is widely accepted that even a small
change can have a significant adverse effect
on the climate, ecosystem and species on the
planet.
Examples of these are acid rains, CO, SOx, NOx,
SPM, RSPM,CO2, ozone in the lower
atmosphere, and photochemical smog.
Air Pollution and Public Opinion
• Not a new phenomena: Smoke from Burning of
Coal
• Problems in many urban areas in late 1800s and
early 1900 due to coal use
• 1000s of deaths attributed to air pollution
episodes in London
– large number of pollution sources
– restricted air volume
– failure to recognize problem
– CO presence: lethal
• Photochemical smog
 Sources of Air Pollution
Why Air Quality?
1.Point source
stacks of thermal power stations, brick kilns, lime kilns, boiler etc.

2. Area source
Cluster of point sources, spill of chemicals, crude/product spills in ocean etc.

3. Line source
Car, scooter, train, aircraft: white line in sky behind a jet plane?
 Type of Pollutants
Why Air Quality?
1. Primary pollutants
pollutants which are being emitted into the air directly by point/area/line
sources.
Examples: CO, NOx, SO2, Pb, SPM, RSPM, VOCs

2. Secondary pollutants
pollutants which are getting formed from primary pollutants in the
atmosphere. Some of the reactions are catalyzed by sun light.
Examples: acid rains, smog, O3, H2O2, formaldehyde,
peroxy acetyl nitrate (PAN)
 Why Air Pollution?
• Main cause: Combustion
Fuel (C,H,S,N,Pb,Hg,ash) + Air (N2 + O2)
CO2, CO, NOx, SOx, Pb, Hg, SPM,
RSPM(PM10), VOCs
Coal: 500 MT
Crude Oil based products: 120 MT
Natural gas: 31 NBCM
Biomass: 400-500 MT
(NOX,SPM/RSPM)
 Why Air Pollution contd..
Usage/handling of Chemicals: paint,
varnishes, perfumes, CFCs, petrol
pumps, etc.

Cement handling, insulation on winding

of motors/alternators/transformers
 Combustion processes
1. Electricity generation
Total generation capacity: 162,366.80 MW
Thermal : 104,423.98 MW (64.6%)
Hydro : 36,953.40 MW (24.7 %)
Nuclear : 4560.0 MW (2.9%)
Renewable : 16,429 MW ( 7.7%)

2. Transport : 18 % of total energy

Liquid fuels : 97.5% total petroleum products
Electricity : 1.0% of total
3. Industry :coal, petroleum products, electricity
4. Domestic sector :biomass, petroleum products, electricity
5. Agriculture :electricity, petroleum products
 Coal combustion having S

If the Indian coal is burnt at a rate of 1.00 kg per second having a

sulphur content of 1.00 %, what is the annual rate of emission of SO2.
The sulphur in the ash is found to be 5 %.

• Sulphur burnt: 1.00 x 1/100=0.01 kg/s

• Sulfur converted to SO2 = 0.01 x 0.95 = 0.0095 kg/s
• S + O2 =SO2
• SO2 produced = 0.0095 x 64/32 = 0.019 kg/s or 600,000 kg/y
Pollutants generation
 Fuel Combustion
PM10
23%

S in coals:0.5-2.5%
Sox
43%
Sox
CO
VOC Pb
1%
Nox
VOC
PM10

Nox
25%

N2+O2=NOx
Pb CO
5% 3%
 Transport
Diesel:350 ppm
PM10 Sox
10% 1%
2010: 50 ppm

Sox
VOC
17% CO
Pb
CO Nox
36%
VOC
PM10

Nox
21%

Octane number enhancer:

Pb
15%
Tetraethyl lead, GM 1922
 Industrial
Sox
8% SOx
PM10
28% CO
Pb 6%
4%

Nox
3% Sox
CO
Pb
Nox
VOC
PM10

VOC 51%
51%
Agencies responsible for controlling
air pollution in India

The Air (Prevention and Control of

Pollution) Act, 1981
Central pollution control board (CPCB)
State pollution control boards (SPCB)

Set procedure : ambient air, industry wise norms

FIR against the firm/sealing of the industry
 National Pollutants Time- Concentration in ambient air
weighted Industrial Residential, Sensitive
average Areas Rural & Areas

Ambient Air SulphurDioxide (SO2) Annual 80 µg/m3

other Areas
60 µg/m3 15 µg/m3

Quality
Average*
24 120 80 µg/m3 30 µg/m3
hours** µg/m3

Standards Oxides of
Nitrogen as
(NO2)
Annual 80 µg/m3
Average*
60 µg/m3 15 µg/m3

24 120 80 µg/m3 30 µg/m3

(NAAQS) Suspended Particulate
hours**
Annual
µg/m3
360 140 µg/m3 70 µg/m3
µg/m3
in India,
Matter (SPM) Average*
24 500 200 µg/m3 100
hours** µg/m3 µg/m3

1994 Respirable Particulate Annual

Matter (RPM) (size less than Average*
10 microns)
120
µg/m3
60 µg/m3 50 µg/m3

24 150 100 µg/m3 75 µg/m3

Environmentally hours** µg/m3
Sensitive areas Lead (Pb) Annual 1.0 µg/m3 0.75 µg/m3 0.50
Average* µg/m3
(ESA): landscape,
24 1.5 µg/m3 1.00 µg/m3 0.75
wild life & history hours** µg/m3
Ammonia1 Annual 0.1 mg/ 0.1 mg/ m3 0.1
Average* m3 mg/m3
24 0.4 mg/ 0.4 mg/m3 0.4
hours** m3 mg/m3
Carbon Monoxide (CO) 8 5.0 2.0 mg/m3 1.0 mg/
hours** mg/m3 m3
^ annual mean of 104 measurements in a year 1 hour 10.0 4.0 mg/m3 2.0
^^ 24/8 h values should be met 98% of time in a year mg/m3 mg/m3
 Remember (24 h)
Pollutant National ambient air quality standards Maximum
(NAAQS) for India permissible
limits of
pollutants in
Values are in µg/m3 air set by
WHO
  Industrial Residential Sensitive  
areas rural & other areas
areas
Sulphur 120 80 30 100 – 150
dioxide
Nitrogen 120 80 30 150
dioxide
Total SPM 500 200 100 150 – 230
 Particulate Matter
Suspended Particulate Matter
Fine Particulate Matter
 What is Particulate Matter?
• Particulate matter, or PM, is
the term for particles found
in the air, including dust, dirt,
soot, smoke, and liquid
droplets. 
• These small particles can
remain suspended in the air
for long periods of time. 
• Some particles are large or
dark enough to be seen as
soot or smoke.  Others are
so small that individually
they can only be detected
with an electron microscope.
Sources of Particulate Matter
PM10
 Types of Fine Particulate Matter
• Primary Particles
– These particles are
emitted directly from air
pollution sources such as
power plants, factories,
automobile exhaust,
construction sites,
unpaved roads, wood
burning
• Secondary Particles
– Formed in the atmosphere
indirectly when gases
from burning fuels react
with sunlight and water
vapor and are chemically
transformed into particles,
secondary pollutants:
solid/liquid
 A few definitions
• Solid or liquid particles with sizes from
0.001 – 100 μm may be in air
• General term for these is aerosols
• Dust originates from grinding or crushing
• Fumes are solid particles formed when
vapors condense
• Smoke describes particles released in
combustion processes
• Smog is used to describe air pollution and
is combination of smoke+fog
Hukka
Hukka
 What Is PM10 & PM2.5 ?

Hair cross section (70 m)

Human Hair (70 µm diameter) PM10 PM2.5

(10µm) (2.5 µm)
 Health Effects From Particulate Matter
• Many scientific studies
have linked breathing
PM to a series of
significant health
problems, including:
– aggravated asthma
– increases in respiratory
symptoms like coughing
and difficult or painful
breathing
– chronic bronchitis
– decreased lung function
– premature death
 Health Effects of Particulate
Matter
• Impact depends on particle size, shape
and composition
• Large particles trapped in nose
• Particles >10 μm removed in
tracheobronchial system
• Particles <0.5 μm reach lungs but are
exhaled with air
• Particles 2 – 4 μm most effectively
deposited in lungs
 Stokes Law

Aerodynamic diameter: Diameter of the sphere having the same settling

velocity as that of the particle

Given by George Gabriel Stokes in 1851

Where,

acceleration of gravity (g), m/s2 

particle diameter (d), m 

density of particle (ρp), kg/m3 

density of medium (ρm), kg/m3 

viscosity of medium (μ), kg/m s 

Human respiratory system
 Other Effects From Particles
• Visibility Impairment
– PM is the major cause of
reduced visibility (haze). 
• Aesthetic Damage
– Soot, a type of PM, stains and
damages stone and other
materials, including objects
such as monuments and
statues.
• Plant Damage
– PM can form a film on plant
leaves interfering with
photosynthesis and plant
growth
 Particulate Matter and Taj
The deposition of
SPM on the
shimmering
white marble of
the Taj Mahal
imparts yellow
tinge to the
marble surface
 Emission norms for heavy Diesel vehicles
Norms CO( g/km) HC (g/km) NOx (g/km) PM(g/km)

1991Norms 14 3.5 18

1996 Norms 11.2 2.4 14.4

India stage 4.5 1.1 8.0 0.36

2000 norms
Bharat
4.0 1.1 7.0 0.15
stage-II
Bharat
2.1 1.6 5.0 0.10
Stage-III
Bharat
1.5 0.96 3.5 0.02
Stage-IV
 Indian Emission Standards (4-Wheel Vehicles)

Standard Reference Date Region

India 2000 Euro 1 2000 Nationwide
Bharat Stage II Euro 2 2001 NCR*, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai
2003.04 NCR*, 10 Cities†
2005.04 Nationwide
Bharat Stage III Euro 3 2005.04 NCR*, 10 Cities†
2010.04 Nationwide
Bharat Stage IV Euro 4 2010.04 NCR*, 10 Cities†
* National Capital Region (Delhi)

†Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Bangalore, Hyderabad,

Ahmedabad, Pune, Surat, Kanpur and Agra
 Standards & Some Case Studies,
2005
• SPM Standard is 200 microgram/m3 (24 h avg)
• RSPM or PM10 is 100 microgram/m3 (24 h avg)
• The highest SPM level of 4,772 microgram per cubic
meter was recorded at Meera Bagh while the lowest of
1,068 microgram per cubic meter at Defence Colony. The
prescribed limit is 200.
• The highest RSPM level was 2,292 microgram per cubic
meter at Meera bagh and minimum was 586 in Rajpur
Road, near the Delhi University. The prescribed limit is
100.
• Police claimed to have fined around 500 people for
bursting crackers after 10.00 PM. The maximum
punishment is imprisonment up to five years and fine up to
Rs 100,000.
 Carbon Monoxide
• Most abundant air
pollutant
• Produced by incomplete
combustion
– insufficient O2
– low temperature
– short residence time
– poor mixing
• Major source (~ 77%) is
motor vehicle exhaust
 Carbon Monoxide
Misc
10%

Industrial
7%

Fuel Combustion
6%

Misc
Industrial
Fuel Combustion
Transport

Transport
77%
 Carbon Monoxide
• Colorless and odorless
• When inhaled, binds to hemoglobin in blood to form
carboxyhemoglobin, reducing the oxygen carrying capacity
• brain function reduced, heart rate increased at lower levels
• asphyxiation occurs at higher levels

• % COHb = β(1- e-γt) (CO)

• % COHb = Carboxyhemoglobin as % saturation

• CO = Carbonmonoxide conc. in ppm
• γ = 0.402 h-1
• β= 0.15 %/ ppm CO
• t = exposure time in hours
Carbon Monoxide
 Carbon Monoxide

• Typical Levels
– busy roadways: 5 – 50 ppm
– congested highways: up to 100 ppm
 Emission norms for heavy Diesel vehicles
Norms CO( g/km) HC (g/km) NOx (g/km) PM(g/km)

1991Norms 14 3.5 18

1996 Norms 11.2 2.4 14.4

India stage 4.5 1.1 8.0 0.36

2000 norms
Bharat
4.0 1.1 7.0 0.15
stage-II
Bharat
2.1 1.6 5.0 0.10
Stage-III
Bharat
1.5 0.96 3.5 0.02
Stage-IV
 Sulfur Oxides (SOx)
• SO2, SO3, SO42
formed during
combustion of fuel
containing sulfur
• H2S released is
converted to SO2
• 10 Tg/yr natural
sources
• 75 Tg/yr
anthropogenic
sources
SOx
 Sulfur Dioxide: Health Effects
• High concentrations of SO2 can result in
temporary breathing impairment.
• Longer-term exposures to high concentrations of
SO2, in conjunction with high levels of PM,
include respiratory illness, alterations in the
lungs' defenses, and aggravation of existing
cardiovascular disease
• Short-term exposures of asthmatic individuals to
elevated SO2 levels may result in reduced lung
function.
Sulfur Dioxide: Environmental
Effects
• Acid Rain  Decreased Visibility
 Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx)
• Primarily NO and NO2
• NO3, N2O, N2O3, N2O4,
N2O5 are also known to
occur
• Thermal NOx created
by oxidation of
atmospheric N2 when T
> 1000 K
• Fuel NOx from
oxidation of N in fuel
 NOx
Industrial
Misc 4%
1%

Misc
Transport
45% Industrial
Fuel Combustion
Transport

Fuel Combustion
50%
 Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx)

• NO has few health effects, but is oxidized

to NO2
• NO2 irritates lungs and promotes
respiratory infections
• NO2 reacts with hydrocarbons in presence
of sunlight to produce smog
• NO2 reacts with hydroxyl radicals to
produce nitric acid – acid precipitation
 Lead
• Sources:
– gasoline (historical)
– metals processing
• Highest air Pb
concentrations
– in the vicinity of
nonferrous and ferrous
smelters, and battery
manufacturers.
Pb
 Lead: Health Effects
• Accumulates in the blood, bones, and soft
tissues.
• Adversely affects the kidneys, liver, nervous
system, and other organs.
• Excessive exposure to Pb may cause
neurological impairments, such as seizures,
mental retardation, and behavioral disorders.
• May be a factor in high blood pressure and
subsequent heart disease.
 Photochemical Smog
hydrocarbons + NOx + sunlight →
photochemical smog (oxidants)

• primary
oxidants
produced:
– ozone (O3)
– formaldehyde
– peroxyacetyl
nitrate (PAN)
Photochemical Smog
Photochemical Smog
 Ozone: Health Effects
• Increased incidents of respiratory distress.
• Repeated exposures to ozone:
– Increased susceptibility to respiratory
infection
– Lung inflammation
– Aggravation of pre-existing respiratory
diseases such as asthma.
– Decrease in lung function and increased
respiratory symptoms such as chest pain and
cough.
 Ozone: Environmental Effects
• Ozone also affects
vegetation and ecosystems
– reductions in agricultural and
commercial forest yields
($0.5 billion/yr in US alone)
– reduced growth and
survivability of tree seedlings
– increased plant susceptibility
to disease, pests, and other
environmental stresses
(e.g., harsh weather).
 Ozone Revised Standards
• In 1997, the 1-hour ozone standard of 0.12
parts per million (ppm) was replaced with
a new 8-hour 0.08 ppm standard.
 Units of Measurement

• μg/m3 – mass:volume
• parts per million (ppm) – volume:volume

ppm  C
 22.414 L  mol  T
-1
2 / 273 K 101.325 kPa/P2 
 MW  1000 L/m3 
where C = concentration in μg/m3
 Landmark datelines to capital
clean
• April 1995: Mandatory fitting of catalytic convertors
• April 1996: Low sulphur diesel introduced
• April 1998: Introduction of CNG buses in Delhi
• Sept 1998: Complete removal of lead in petrol
• Dec 1998: Restrict plying of goods vehicles during the
day
• Sept 1999: Amendment of Motor Vehicles Act to include
CNG
• April 2000: Private vehicles to be registered only if they
conform to Euro II standards
• April 2000: Eight-year-old commercial vehicles phased
out
• Nov 2002: Conversion of all public transport buses to
CNG
 Air Pollution Control
Mobile Emissions: Line sources
Stationary Emissions: Point sources
 Type of the engines
1. Spark Ignition (SI) Engines: 1880 Nicholas Otto, German engineer
Compression ratio: 1: 8, Gasoline-Octane number, 88 & 91(IOCL Extra Premium)
Four stroke: Intake stroke (Gasoline + Air)
Compression stroke
Power stroke : spark is given to have combustion: Faraday dynamo
Exhaust stroke
CO, HC, NOx and PM

2. Compression Ignition (CI) Engines: 1893 Rudolf Diesel, German

Compression ratio: 1:15, Diesel-Cetane number, 46+
Four stroke: Intake stroke (Air only)
Compression stroke
Power stroke : Diesel injected to have combustion
Exhaust stroke
NOx are higher and PM
Emissions in Internal Combustion Engines

Rich Mixture
 Two
Way
Catalytic
A two-way catalytic converter has two
Converter simultaneous tasks:

Two Oxidation of carbon monoxide to carbon

pollutants: dioxide: 2CO + O2 → 2CO2
CO Oxidation of unburnt hydrocarbons
HC (unburnt and partially-burnt fuel) to carbon
dioxide and water: 2CxHy + (2x+y/2)O2 →
Leaded 2xCO2 + yH2O
gasoline
spoils
converters
 Three
Way
A three-way catalytic converter has three
Catalytic simultaneous tasks:

Converter
Reduction of nitrogen oxides to nitrogen
Three
and oxygen: 2NOx → xO2 + N2
pollutants:
CO Oxidation of carbon monoxide to carbon
HC dioxide: 2CO + O2 → 2CO2
&
NOx
Oxidation of unburnt hydrocarbons (HC) to
Leaded
carbon dioxide and water: 2CxHy +
gasoline
(2x+y/2)O2 → 2xCO2 + yH2O
spoils
converters
 Three
Way
Catalytic
Converter
Three
pollutants:
CO
HC
&
NOx
Leaded
gasoline
spoils
converters
 Catalytic
Converters
use
Platinum/
Palladium/
Rhodium
catalysts
 Cleaner/Alternative Fuel
• Vaporization of Gasoline should be reduced.
• Oxygen containing additives reduce air
requirement. Eg., ethanol, methyl tertiary butyl
ether (MTBE) ( ill health effects).
– Methanol: (Less photochemically reactive VOC, but
emits HCHO (eye irritant), difficult to start in winters:
Can be overcome by M85 (85 % methanol, 15 %
gasoline)
– Ethanol: GASOHOL(10 % ethanol & 90% Gasoline),
– CNG: Low HC, NOx high, Inconvenient refueling,
leakage hazard.
– LPG: Propane, NOx high
 Air Pollution Control
Stationary Sources
• Pre-combustion Control
– Switching to Less Sulphur and N Fuel: Alternate fuels
• Combustion Control
– Improving the combustion process: grate/pulverized
– New burners to reduce NOx
– New Fluidized bed boilers
– Integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC)
• Coal converted into CO + H2 and then burnt
• Post-Combustion Control
– Particulate collection devices
– Flue gas desulphurization
 Control of Particulate Matter

Device Selection Depends on

• Particle Size
• Concentration
• Corrosivity
• Volumetric Flow Rate
• Required Collection Efficiency
• Cost
 Cyclone
• For PM > 5 micron
• Efficiency > 90%
• Maintenance Free
• Inexpensive
 Fabric Filters
• Eff. – 100 % Particles
>0.01 micron
• Can not operate in
moist environment
• Large & Expensive
• Competitive with ESP
 Electrostatic Precipitator
• Wires are charged with high
negative voltage. 100 KV
• PM negatively charged & move
towards grounded collector
plates
• Removal>98%, All size
• Little pressure drop, low O&M
cost but initial cost high
• Occupy large space
• Plate Area Requirement
depends on Efficiency required
– Efficiency = 1-e-wA/Q
– A is total area of collection
plate
– Q Volumetric flow rate of
the gas
– W is drift velocity
Sulfur Dioxide Control

CaCO3+SO2+2H2O=CaSO3.2H2O+CO2
or CaO+SO2+2H2O=CaSO3.2H2O