Structural Analysis Chapter 01

Chapter 1:
Types of Structures and Loads
Structural Analysis 7th Edition in SI Units

Russell C. Hibbeler
Introduction
• Structures refer to a system of connected parts

used to support a load
• Factors to consider:
• Safety
• Esthetics
• Serviceability
• Economic & environmental constraints
Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads

Structural Analysis 7 th Edition
© 2009 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
Classification of Structures
• Structural elements
• Tie rods
• Beams
• Columns
• Types of structures
• Trusses
• Cables & Arches
• Surface Structures
Loads
Loads
Structural forms
Elements carrying primary loads
Various supporting members
Foundation
Loads
• Design loading for a structure is often specified in

codes
• General building codes
• Design codes

Loads
• Types of load
• Dead loads
• Weights of various structural members
• Weights of any objects that are attached to the
structure

Example 1.1
The floor beam is used to support the 1.83m width of lightweight
plain concrete slab having a thickness of 102mm. The slab serves
as a portion of the ceiling for the floor below & its bottom coated
with plaster. A 2.44m high, 305mm thick lightweight solid
concrete block wall is directly over the top flange of the beam.
Determine the loading on the beam measured per m length of the
beam.

Solution
Using the data provided from the table,
concrete slab : (0.015kN / m 2 .mm)(102mm)(1.83m)  2.80kN / m
plaster ceiling : (0.24kN / m 2 )(1.83m)  0.44kN / m
block wall : (16.5kN / m 3 )(2.44m)(0.305m)  12.26kN / m
Total  2.80  0.44  12.26  15.50kN / m

Loads
• Live loads
• Varies in magnitude & location
• Building loads
• Depends on the purpose for which the building is
designed
• These loadings are generally tabulated in local, state
or national code

Loads
• Live loads
• Building Loads
• Uniform, concentrated loads
 4.57 
L  Lo  0.25   (SI units)
 K LL AT 
 
where
L  reduced design live load/m 2 of area supported by the member
Lo  unreduced design live load/m 2 of area supported by the member
K LL  live load element factor. For interior column K LL  4
AT  tributary area in m 2

Loads
• Live loads
• Building Loads
• Uniform, concentrated loads
L  0.5 Lo for members supporting one floor
L  0.4 Lo for members supporting more than one floor
No reduction is allowed for loads  4.79kN / m 2
or for structures used for public assembly, garage or roof.

Example 1.2
A 2-storey office building has interior columns that are spaced
6.71m apart in 2 perpendicular directions. If the (flat) roof loading
is 0.96kN/m2, determine the reduced live load supported by a
typical interior column located at ground level.

Solution
AT  (6.71m)(6.71m)  45.0m 2
FR  (0.96kN / m 2 )(45.0m 2 )  43.1kN
For second floor,
Lo  2.4kN / m 2 , K LL  4, 4 AT  4(45.0m 2 )  180m 2  37.2m 2
 4.57 
L  2.4 0.25    1.42kN / m 2
 180 
The load reduction is (1.42/2.4)100%  59.1%  50%
FF  (1.42kN / m 2 )(45.0m 2 )  63.9kN
F  FR  FF  43.1kN  63.9kN  107.0kN
Loads
• Highway Bridge loads

• Primary live loads are those due to traffic
• Specifications for truck loadings are reported in
AASHTO
• For 2-axle truck, these loads are designated with H
followed by the weight of truck in tons and another
no. gives the year of the specifications that the load
was reported

Loads
• Railway Bridge loads

• Loadings are specified in AREA
• A modern train having a 320kN (72k) loading on the
driving axle of the engine is designated as an E-72
loading

Loads
• Impact loads
• Due to moving vehicles
• The % increase of the live loads due to impact is
called the impact factor, I
15.24
I  0.3
L  38.1
L  length of the span in m that is subjected to the live load

Loads
• Wind loads
• Kinetic energy of the wind is converted into potential
energy of pressure when structures block the flow of
wind
• Effects of wind depends on density & flow of air,
angle of incidence, shape & stiffness of the structure
& roughness of surface
• For design, wind loadings can be treated as static or
dynamic approach

Loads
• Wind loads
q z  0.613K z K zt K V 2 I ( N / m2 )
d
where
V  velocity in m/s of a 3s gust of wind measured10m above the ground during a 50year recurrence period.
Values are obtained from a wind map.
I  the importance factor that depends upon the nature of the building occupancy.
K z  the velocity pressure exposure coefficient. A function of height and depends upon the ground terrain.
See Table 1.5.
K zt  a factor that accounts for wind speed increases due to hills % escarpments. For flat ground K zt  1
K d  a factor that accounts for the direction of the wind.
It is used only when the structure is subjected to combination of loads.

For wind acting alone, K d  1

Loads
• Wind loads
• Once qz is obtained, the design pressure can be
obtained from a list of relevant equations
p  qGC p  qh (GC pi )
q  q z for the windward wall at height z above the ground
qh for the leeward wall where z  h , mean height of the roof
G  a wind - gust effect factor, depending on exposure.
For rigid structure, G  0.85
C p  wall or roof pressure coefficient
Negative values indicate pressure acting away from the surface.
GC pi  the internal pressure coefficient which depends upon the
type of openings in the building.
For fully enclosed building, GC pi  0.18

Example 1.3
The enclosed building is used for agricultural purposes and is
located outside of Chicago, Illinois on flat terrain. When the wind
is directed as shown, determine the design wind pressure acting
on the roof and sides of the building using the ASCE 7-02
Specifications.

Solution
Basic wind speed, V  40m/s, I  0.87

For flat terrain, K zt  1
Wind loading is K d  1
q z  0.613K zK zt K dV 2 I  853.3K z
h'  22.6 tan 100  4.03
h  7.62  4.03 / 2  9.63m

Solution
Using values of K z in Table 1.5, calculated values

of pressure profile are listed in the table below.
Note the value of K z was determined by linear interpolation
for z  h
( 1.04-0.98 )/( 12.2-9.1 )  ( 1.04-K h )/( 12.2-9.63 )
K h  0.990 , qh  853.3( 0.990 )  845 N/m 2
G  0.85, (GC pi )  0.18
p  qGC p  qh (GC pi )
 q (0.85)C p  845(0.18)  0.85qC p 152
Solution
z (m) Kz Qz (N/m2)
0 – 4.6 0.85 733
6.1 0.90 776
7.6 0.94 814
h = 9.6 0.990 856

Solution
Windward wall
Pressure varies with height z
For all L/B , C p  0.8
p0 4.6  344 N / m 2 or 651N / m 2
p6.1  374 N / m 2 or 680 N / m 2
p7.6  400 N / m 2 or 709 N / m 2
Leeward wall
L/B  2(22.86)/45.72  1, C p  0.5
p  517 N / m 2 or  211N / m 2
Solution
Side walls
For all values of L/B, C p  0.7
p  666 N / m 2 or  356 N / m 2
Windward roofs
Here h/L  9.63 / 22.86  0.211  0.25,
so that C p  0.7 and q  qh
p  666 N / m 2 or  356 N / m 2

Solution
Leeward roofs
In this case, C p  0.3 and q  qh
p  356 N / m 2 or  65 N / m 2

Loads
• Wind loads
• If the structure represents an above-ground sign, the
wind will produce a resultant force on the face of the
sign which is determined from:
F  q z GC f A f
where
q z  the velocity pressure evaluated at the height z of the
centroid of A f
G  the wind - gust coefficient factor defined previously
C f  a force coefficient which depends upon the ratio of the
large dimension M of the sign to the small dimension N.
Values are listed in Table 1.6
A f  the area of the face of the sign projected into the wind
Loads
• Snow loads
• Design loadings depend on building’s general shape
& roof geometry, wind exposure, location and its
importance
• Snow loads are determined from a zone map
reporting 50-year recurrence interval

Loads
• Snow loads
• For flat roof (slope < 5%):
p f  0.7Ce Ct Ip g eqn 1.5
where
C e  an exposure factor depending upon the terrain.
A fully exposed roof in an unobstructed area C e  0.8.
If the roof is sheltered & located in the centre of a large city
C e  1.3
Ct  a thermal factor which refers to the average temperature
within the building. For unheated structure kept below freezing
Ct  1.2, whereas if the roof is supporting a normally heated
structure, then Ct  1.0.
I  the importance factor as it relates to occupancy.
For e.g, I  0.8 for agriculture & storage facilities and I  1.2 for hospital
Loads
• Snow loads
If p g  0.96kN / m 2 ,
use the largest value for p f ,
either computed from eqn 1.5 or p f  Ip g
2
If p g  0.96kN / m ,
use p f  I (0.96kN / m 2 )

Example 1.4
The unheated storage facility is located on flat open terrain near
Cario, Illinois where the ground snow load is 0.72kN/m2.
Determine the design snow load on the roof.

Solution
Since the roof is flat, use eqn 1.5

Ce  0.8, Ct  1.2, I  0.8
p f  0.7Ce Ct Ip g
p f  0.7(0.8)(1.2)(0.8)(0.72)  0.39kN / m 2
Since p g  0.72kN / m 2  0.96kN / m 2

p f  Ip g  (0.8)(0.72)  0.58kN / m 2
By comparison, choose
p f  0.58kN / m 2
Loads
• Earthquake loads
• Earthquake produce loadings through its interaction
with the ground & its response characteristics
• Their magnitude depends on amount & type of
ground acceleration, mass & stiffness of structure
• Top block is the lumped mass of the roof
• Middle block is the lumped
stiffness of all the building’s columns
• During earthquake, the ground
vibrates both horizontally & vertically
Loads
• Horizontal accel -> shear forces in the column
• If the column is stiff & the block has a small mass,
the period of vibration of the block will be short, the
block will acceleration with the same motion as the
ground & undergo slight relative displacements
• If the column is very flexible & the block has a large
mass, induced motion will cause small accelerations
of the block & large relative displacement

Loads
• The effects of a structure’s response can be
determined & represented as an earthquake
response spectrum
• For small structure, static analysis is satisfactory
S DS
Cs 
R/I
S DS  spectral response accel for short periods of vibration
R  response modification factor that depends upon the ductility of the structure
I  importance factor that depends on the use of the building

Loads
• Hydrostatic & Soil Pressure

• The pressure developed by these loadings when the
structures are used to retain water or soil or granular
materials
• E.g. tanks, dams, ships, bulkheads & retaining walls
• Other natural loads
• Effect of blast
• Temperature changes
• Differential settlement of foundation

Structural Design
• Material uncertainties occur due to

• variability in material properties
• residual stress in materials
• intended measurements being different from
fabricated sizes
• material corrosion or decay
• Many types of loads can occur simultaneously on a
structure

Structural Design
• In working-stress design, the computed elastic

stress in the material must not exceed the
allowable stress along with the following typical
load combinations as specified by the ASCE 7-02
Standard
• Dead load
• 0.6 (dead load) + wind load
• 0.6 (dead load) + 0.7(earthquake load)

Structural Design
• Ultimate strength design is based on designing the

ultimate strength of critical sections
• This method uses load factors to the loads or
combination of loads
• 1.4 (Dead load)
• 1.2 (dead load) + 1.6 (live load) + 0.5 (snow load)
• 1.2 (dead load) + 1.5(earthquake load)+ 0.5 (live load)


Structural Analysis Chapter 01

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Structural Analysis Chapter 01

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chapter 1:

Types of Structures and Loads

Structural Analysis 7th Edition in SI Units

• Structures refer to a system of connected parts

Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads

Elements carrying primary loads

Various supporting members

• Design loading for a structure is often specified in

Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads

Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads

Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads

concrete slab : (0.015kN / m 2 .mm)(102mm)(1.83m)  2.80kN / m

plaster ceiling : (0.24kN / m 2 )(1.83m)  0.44kN / m

block wall : (16.5kN / m 3 )(2.44m)(0.305m)  12.26kN / m

Total  2.80  0.44  12.26  15.50kN / m

Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads

Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads

Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads

Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads

Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads

• Highway Bridge loads

Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads

• Railway Bridge loads

Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads

Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads

Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads

It is used only when the structure is subjected to combination of loads.

Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads

Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads

Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads

Basic wind speed, V  40m/s, I  0.87

Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads

Using values of K z in Table 1.5, calculated values

0 – 4.6 0.85 733

6.1 0.90 776

7.6 0.94 814

h = 9.6 0.990 856

Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads

Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads

Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads

Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads

Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads

Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads

Since the roof is flat, use eqn 1.5

Since p g  0.72kN / m 2  0.96kN / m 2

Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads

Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads

• Hydrostatic & Soil Pressure

Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads

• Material uncertainties occur due to

Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads

• In working-stress design, the computed elastic

Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads

• Ultimate strength design is based on designing the

Chapter 1: Types of Structure and Loads

You might also like