BES 214

CULTURE
 Processes of Cultural Change

• The concept "cultural processes'" refer to the

ways by which culture is generated, distributed
and changed. The processes of cultural change
include innovation, diffusion, acculturation
and assimilation.
 (I) Innovation
• Innovation may be defined as additions to knowledge
and the use of knowledge in novel forms. Innovation
cultural change comes from sources within the
culture.
• Innovations can come about through the discovery of
new material in the environment for which a use
already exists
• An example is the invention of new coal pots in
Ghana. This type of discovery and invention is more
likely to occur in simple societies than Complex
societies.
 Innovation con’t

• Yet another type of innovation is polygenesis which

refers to multiple independent innovations. That is,
many people inventing the same thing independently
at the same time is called multiple innovations.
• Innovations are cumulative, that is, further
improvements are made to already existing
inventions. For example, improvement to the
typewriter has been elevated to the invention of the
computer. Further innovations arise from the
applications of the old innovations.
  
Diffusion

• Diffusion refers to the process by which culture traits are transferred

from one society to another, through migration, trade, war or any
other contact. Since Cultures have never been completely isolated
from one another, diffusion has happened throughout history and it is
still taking place.
• There are three forms of cultural diffusion and they are direct,
indirect and forced diffusion.
• Direct diffusion occurs when two cultures are close to each other
resulting in inter-marriages, trade and even warfare. In Ghana, an
example of direct diffusion is seen among the various ethnic groups
in areas such as the style and the type of clothes people wear, food,
music, etc. Direct diffusion was very common in ancient times where
small groups or bands of humans lived in adjoining settlements.
• lndirect diffusion happens when culture traits are passed on
from one culture to another through a middleman, to another
culture, without the two cultures coming into direct contact with
one another. Indirect culture is very common in today's world
because of the mass media, the internet and urbanisation. 
• Forced diffusion takes place when one culture subjugates,
conquers or enslaves another culture and forces its own customs
on the conquered people. For example, when the Europeans
came to the Gold Coast (now Ghana), they controlled the local
people and made them practise Christianity. Diffiusion has
various consequences. In some instances, the recipient group
may benefit from the new elements, while in others, diffusion
may negatively affect them.
 Assimilation

• Assimilation is the fusion of two or more different

cultures into a new culture that is quite unlike the
original. Alternatively, assimilation may be defined
as the process through which individuals or groups
of people lose their distinctive or minority group
patterns of behaviour and values and adopt the
values and behavioural patterns of the dominant
group.
• Atypical example of assimilation is that practice in
West Africa by the French who denounced the
cultural practices of Africans and incorporated some
Africans into French culture as French citizens.
 Theoretical Analysis of Culture

• Culture allows us to understand ourselves and

the world around us. However, sociologists
and anthropologists try to understand culture
by means of theoretical perspectives or
paradigms such as the structural-functional
analysis, social-conflict analysis and cultural
materialism.
 Structural-Functional Analysis

• The structural-functional analysis sees society as a

relatively stable system of integrated parts designed to
meet human needs. This means that various cultural traits,
according to structural-functional analysıs, help to maintain
the overall operation or stability of society.
• The structural-functionalism draws on the philosophical
doctrine of idealism which asserts that ideas rather than
material conditions are the basis of human reality. That is,
these ideas or the core values of society serve to bind all
members together. Thus, the structural-functional analysis
posits that cultural systems are stable and, therefore, they
help society to operate in a stable manner.
  
The Evaluation of the Structural-Functional Analysis

• (1) The strength of the structural-functional paradigm lies in

how culture operates as an integral system in meeting human
needs.
• (2) However, by emphasising cultural stability, this perspective
own plays the extent to which societies change.
• (3) Similarly, functionalism's contention that cultural values are
embraced by all numbers of a society overlooks the range of
cultural diversity.
• (4) Finally, the cultural patterns favoured by powerful people
often dominate a society, while other ways of life are relegated
to the background. Thus, cultures usually generate more
conflicts than what structural-functional analysis maintains.
  
So ci al-C on flic t A nal ys is

• The social-conflict perspective sees culture differently from

the point of view of structural-functionalism. According to
the social-conflict theorists, culture forms a dynamic arena
of conflicts caused by social inequality. This perspective
draws attention to the ways in which cultural traits serve the
needs of some member of society at the expense of others.
• Social-conflict analysts critically question why certain
values dominate in a society.
• They also question the forces which generate one set of
values rather than another, and those who benefit from these
social arrangements. Followers of Karl Marx argue that
values are shaped by a society's system of economic
production.
 Social-Conflict Analysis con’t

• This shows the social-conflict perspective's link to the

philosophical doctrine of materialism, the assertion that how
people fashion their material world such as the capital economy
has a powerful effect on other dimensions of their culture
• Social-conflict analysis ties the competitive and individualistic
values of capitalist societies to their economies, which serve the
interests of those who own factories and other businesses. The
culture of capitalism further teaches us to believe that the rich
and powerful have more talents and discipline than others and,
therefore, deserve their wealth and privileges. Viewing
capitalism as somehow "natural” Some people, therefore, resist
efforts to reduce economic disparity.
 Evaluation of the Social-Conflict Analysis

• The strength of the social-conflict perspective lies in

showing that, if cultural systems address human
needs, they do so unequally. That is, the social-
conflict analysis holds the view that cultural elements
"function” to maintain the dominance of some people
over others. This inequality, in turn, promotes change.
Because the social-conflict perspective stresses the
divisiveness of culture, however, it fails to Identity
the ways in which cultural patterns integrate all
members of society. Thus, there is the need to
consider both social-conflict and structural-function
insights to gain a fuller understanding of culture.
 Cultural Materialism

• This theoretical perspective is derived from

ecology, the branch of natural science that studies
the relationships between living organisms and
their environment.
• Cultural materialism or cultural ecology,
therefore, is the theoretical paradigm that explores
the relationship of human culture to the physical
environment. The perspective investigates how
climate and the availability of food, water and
other natural resources shape cultural patterns.
 Evaluation of Cultural Materialism

• Cultural materialism expands our understanding of

culture, highlighting its interplay with the
environment, and revealing how cultural patters
arise in response to particular natural conditions.
However, this perspective has several limitations. It
is difficult drawing simple or direct connections
between the environment and culture because
cultural and physical forces interact in subtle and
complex ways. Further, this approach has less
application to technologically sophisticated
societies that extensively manipulate the natural
world.
  
The Role of Culture in the Society

• The role of culture in any given society includes the following:

• (1) Culture serves as an Identification mark for a people or a
society. That is, any society can be distinguished from all others
by its mainstream cultural traits. For example, Ghana is noted
throughout the world for her hospitability and Kente cloth. Thus,
the distinguishing cultural trait can be material or non-material.
• (ii) Culture perpetuates the existence of a people or a society. This
means that the cultural practice of a society facilitates its
existence in terms of politics, economic activities, reproduction,
etc.
• (iii) Culture offers feelings of group pride or sense of belonging,
and collective self-awareness which in turn promotes solidarity,
and a sense of direction.
• (iv) Culture helps to view other societies in their right
perspective. For example, cultural relativism helps us
to view the behaviour of a people from the perspective
of their own culture. Such a practice contributes to the
promotion of peace among people of various cultures.
(v) The cultural heritage of a people can provide
attraction for tourists. This is usually seen in material
culture. For example, the castles and forts in Ghana
serve as monumental tourist attractions. Additionally,
the tourist attractions provide sources of revenue for the
state.
• In conclusion, it can be said that no society can
exist without a culture. All human activities are
determined and directed by the cultural setting in
which they are found. Without culture, we could
not be "human' at all, in the sense in which we
usually understand that term. We would have no
language in which to express ourselves, no sense
of self-consciousness, and our ability to think or
reason would be limited (Giddens, 1993 p. 32).